Chicago beaches
Chicago beaches
The beaches in Chicago are an extensive network of waterfront recreational areas in the Chicago Park District. The Chicago Metropolitan waterfront includes parts of the Lake Michigan shores as well as parts of the banks of the Chicago, Des Plaines, Calumet, Fox, and DuPage Rivers and their tributaries.[1] The waterfront also includes the Illinois and Michigan Canal and the Sanitary and Ship Canal.[1] Historically, the waterfront has been used for commerce, industry, and leisure. Leisure, such as fishing, swimming, hunting, walking and boating, was much more prevalent throughout the river sections of the waterfront system in the early in the nineteenth century before industrial uses altered the landscape. By midcentury, much leisure shifted to Lake Michigan as a result of industrial influence. The first City of Chicago Public Beach opened in Lincoln Park in 1895.[2]
Today, the entire 28 miles (45 km) Chicago lakefront shoreline is man-made.[3] There are twenty nine lakefront beaches in Chicago along the shore of Lake Michigan.[4] Two more are located within city parks. Currents and wave action in Lake Michigan tend to move sand from north to south, where it eventually ends up in the Indiana Dunes.[citation needed] Winter storms erode some of Chicago’s beaches, and deposit the sand on others, requiring the Park District to supplement tons of sand yearly. The Chicago Lifeguard Service force is the largest of its kind in the nation, employing over a thousand guards in the summer (between Memorial Day weekend and Labor Day weekend). Chicago also has the most swimable and most guarded waterfront of any single municipality in the world. While many patrons complain about the cleanliness of the water, Chicago boasts the cleanest urban waterfront in the United States, and second in the world only to Stockholm; water is tested daily by the Chicago Park District for E. coli and other dangers.
History
Early beaches were generally funded by private entities such as hotels and private clubs.[5] Late 19th century ordinances prohibited public bathing in the lakes. Social reform movements lobbied for lakeshore use for recreational purposes by the poor and working class.[5] Late nineteenth century bathing norms created demand for public baths for the poor.[6] A second lobbyist motivation was that social refomers of the late nineteenth century saw public beaches as an opportunity to accommodate demand for public baths and eliminate the expenditure of enforcement resources on ordinance violations for public bathing.[5] The city responded by opening the first public bathing beach in 1895 in Lincoln Park primarily as a response to the efforts of the Free Bath and Sanitary League (formerly the Municipal Order League).[5] Spaces were designated for public use and the city accepted responsibility for maintaining the beaches.
By 1900 the lakefront was divided into zones of recreational, residential, agricultural and industrial uses. Lake Michigan water quality concerns lead to the reversal of the Chicago river with deep cut of the Illinois & Michigan canal in 1871 and the construction of the Sanitary and Ship Canal at the turn of the century.[1] The 1909 Burnham Plan led to development of the lakefront.[1] Lakefront development was dictated by recreational concerns instead of commercial ones due to the influence of Aaron Montgomery Ward. His belief that the foremost concern was for the public’s access to the Lake left its impression on the development of Jackson, Burnham, Grant and Lincoln Parks.[3] Continuing social reform efforts, led to the opening of several municipal beaches in the second decade of the twentieth century. The city reclaimed the privately owned lakefront beaches by the 1920s.[5] The 1919 Race Riot started a history of race riots related to beach resources. In this confrontation, a black youth unknowingly transgressed a racial line of demarcation on the beach and was stoned and drowned setting off days of rioting that lead to several deaths. Many other riots are mentioned under the appropriate beaches below.
Juneway Terrace Beach
Juneway Terrace Beach, located at the 7800 north block of Lake Michigan,[7] is the northernmost beach in Chicago, lies in Rogers Avenue Beach and Park. It is separated from Rogers Beach by a stretch of rip rap protecting three apartment buildings.
Rogers Beach
Rogers Beach lies in Rogers Avenue Beach and Park at 7705 north.[7] Barely one block long, the park also has tennis courts.
Howard Beach
Howard Beach lies in Howard Street Beach and Park at 7600 north,[7] which is just south of Howard Street. It is perhaps 213 feet (65 meters) long.
Jarvis Beach / Fargo Beach
Jarvis beach located at 7400 north and Fargo beach is located at 7432 north.[7] Offshore stretches of riprap act to reduce erosion of this beach, which is about three blocks long.
Loyola Beach / Leone Beach
Located at 7032 North Sheridan and extending for eight blocks, Leone Beach is Chicago’s largest.[8]
Pratt Beach
Contiguous with Leone/Loyola Beach located at 1050 West Pratt Boulevard.[7]
Hartigan Beach / Albion Beach
Contiguous with Pratt Beach, located at 6800 north,[7] ends just north of Loyola Avenue.
Columbia Beach
Columbia Beach is located at 6726 north.[7]
North Shore Beach
North Shore Beach is located at 6700 north.[7]
Thorndale Beach
Thorndale Beach is located at 5934 north.[7]
Kathy Osterman Beach (formerly Hollywood Beach)
Located at the 5800 North block where Lake Shore Drive ends at a curve that feeds into Sheridan Road (near West Hollywood Avenue and North Lake Shore Drive), this crescent-shaped beach serves two groups. The northern half is largely a family beach and the southern half is largely a gay men and lesbian beach.[9] The northern half of the beach has shallow water which makes it kid-friendly.[10]
Foster Avenue Beach
Foster Avenue Beach is located at 5200 north.[7]
Wilson Avenue / Montrose Avenue Beach
Montrose beach is a large north side beach. It is one of few beaches patrons may launch non-motorized watercraft, such as kayaks and catamarans into Lake Michigan. It also has one of only two dog beaches in the Chicago Park District, making it a popular beach for dog lovers. In the fenced off dog-friendly section at the north end of the beach leashless dogs are permitted once on the sand. Montrose beach hosts the Junior Guard regional championships every summer.
There is also an “unofficial” dog beach at Belmont Harbor, which is not officially a Chicago Park District beach. Wave action deposited a small triangular patch of sand in a protected corner of Belmont Harbor sometime in the 1980s. This beach is completely fenced in, but patrons allowing their dog off leash may still get ticketed. Wilson Avenue is 4600 north and Montose Avenue is 4400 north.[7] Thus, it is actually a misnomer that the dog beach is at Montrose Avenue Beach because the beach is at the northern end of these contiguous beaches.
Wilson Avenue Beach once officially located at the 4600 North Block, was at one time a private beach owned. In 1915, the City opened Clarendon Beach (now Montrose Avenue Beach) immediately to the south at the 4400 North Block as a public beach.[11] By 1929, 2 million people had visited the two long public beach.[11] In 1916, a clash over a suspected non-paying transgressor to the private beach led to the beating by lifeguards and members.[12]
North Avenue Beach
The North Avenue Beach, located at 1600 north,[7] is considered by many to be Chicago’s premier beach. It has the largest lifeguard staff and is home to the most developed beachhouse. Technically running from North Avenue to Diversey Harbor, North Avenue Beach is characterized by its piers which hold the sand in place and create a scalloped shoreline, terminating in a Cape Cod-like hook. The beach hosts international volleyball tournaments as well as millions of sun worshippers every year. North Avenue is also center stage for the Chicago Air & Water Show, which draws over a million people a day from Ohio to Diversey along the lakefront. North Avenue Beach is the site of the annual AVP Chicago Open (2006 is known as the AVP McDonald’s Chicago Open presented by Nautica). North Avenue Beach is also home to the only chess pavilion in Chicago.
Humboldt Park Beach
Located in a former lagoon of Humboldt Park which was dredged and given a sand bottom. At 41.9066° N 87.7031° W, this “beach” is mostly used by small children as a shallow wading pond. It is guarded in the summer and drained when not guarded.
Oak Street Beach
Oak Street Beach, located at 1000 north,[7] covers the area from the North Avenue ‘Hook’ Pier south to Ohio Street Beach (Illinois St. Beach, Olive Beach), about 1.5 mi (2 km). Oak Street is home to the largest area of deep water swimming in the city (1/2 mile (800 m) over 10 ft (3 m)), and is training grounds for hundreds of triathletes and distance swimmers. Until 2006 Oak Street Beach was also the only place in the city where SCUBA divers could dive close to the shore. The north ledge was once a hot spot for the city’s gay community, and still is a second home to thousands of sunbathers, runners, skaters and bikers. At one point Oak Street was the city’s most popular beach with its proximity to downtown and boasted tens of thousands of visitors each day.
Ohio Street Beach
A small beach in Olive Park located just north of Ohio Street (400N)[7] east of Lake Shore Drive. It faces north, rather than the usual east, because it formed on its own in a bay created by the Jardine Water Purification Plant which juts out into the Lake.
12th Street Beach
The 12th Street Beach is just south of the Adler Planetarium on Northerly Island (formerly the site of Meigs Field). The beach runs from about 1300 S to about 1450 S, but was named 12th Street Beach rather than (unlucky) 13th Street Beach. When 12th Street was renamed Roosevelt Road the beach retained its name, but now is sometimes called 14th Street Beach.
25th Street Beach / 26th Street Beach
No longer extant, these segregated beaches were the flashpoint of the Chicago Race Riot of 1919.
31st Street Beach
The 31st Street Beach is located in Burnham Park. The beach is host every year to the Junior Lifeguard Chicago Area Tug-o-War. Lifeguards here cover most of the area from the beach north to McCormick Place.
49th Street Beach
49th Street Beach is a small stone beach in Burnham Park. It is not guarded, so swimming is not allowed.
57th Street Beach
The 57th Street Beach is in the city’s Hyde Park neighborhood, across Lake Shore Drive from the Museum of Science and Industry. Recent renovations have made it easier to access with two large underpasses at the intersection of 57th Street and Lake Shore Drive. 57th Street Beach provides an area of deep swimming south of Promontory Point.
63rd Street Beach
The 63rd Street Beach is just outside of Jackson Park. It is home to the largest and oldest beach house in the City. In July 1913, Jackson Park Beach was the cite of a clash over required bathing attire when Dr. Rosalie Ladova was arrested for disorderly conduct for swimming in her bloomers after removing her bathing skirt.[13]
South Shore Beach
South Shore Beach is the beach behind the Chicago Park District’s South Shore Cultural Center (formerly South Shore Country Club), which is located at the intersection of 71st and South Shore Drive. The Country club is a magnificent old building and it home to a ballroom, restaurant, golf course and tennis courts. The Beach also runs up against 67th street beach and Jackson Park
Ashe Beach
Ashe Beach Park is a newer addition to the Chicago Park District’s beaches, bought in 1979 and named for the late tennis great Arthur Ashe, after he died of AIDS in 1993. In addition to the beach, the park features two tennis courts. It is located between 74th and 75th Streets.[14]
Rainbow Beach
Rainbow Beach is officially located at 3111 E. 77th St.,[15] is a beach in the Chicago Park District’s Rainbow Beach & Park that stretches from 75th Street to 78th Street on the Lake Michigan shoreline.[16] Rainbow Beach was named such in 1918.
Starting with the 1919 Race Riot, Chicago has had a long history of race riots related to use of public resources, such as parks and beaches. Rainbow beach was an area of controversy for black and white youth. Black families that were economically dependent on the nearby South Chicago steel mills had avoided the public hostility of the lifeguards and white bathers. Demographic shifts and racial climate change of the 1960’s led to a July 7 and 8, 1961 “freedom wade-in” at Rainbow Beach staged by an interracial coalition of demonstrators, including members of the NAACP Youth Council.[17]
Calumet Beach
Calumet Park,[18] which is not to be confused with Calumet Park, IL, contains beaches located at the 9600, 9800 and 9900 South blocks along Lake Michigan. The main beach has a Beach House with a concessions stand.
Chicago beaches
Chicago beaches
The beaches in Chicago are an extensive network of waterfront recreational areas in the Chicago Park District. The Chicago Metropolitan waterfront includes parts of the Lake Michigan shores as well as parts of the banks of the Chicago, Des Plaines, Calumet, Fox, and DuPage Rivers and their tributaries.[1] The waterfront also includes the Illinois and Michigan Canal and the Sanitary and Ship Canal.[1] Historically, the waterfront has been used for commerce, industry, and leisure. Leisure, such as fishing, swimming, hunting, walking and boating, was much more prevalent throughout the river sections of the waterfront system in the early in the nineteenth century before industrial uses altered the landscape. By midcentury, much leisure shifted to Lake Michigan as a result of industrial influence. The first City of Chicago Public Beach opened in Lincoln Park in 1895.[2]
Today, the entire 28 miles (45 km) Chicago lakefront shoreline is man-made.[3] There are twenty nine lakefront beaches in Chicago along the shore of Lake Michigan.[4] Two more are located within city parks. Currents and wave action in Lake Michigan tend to move sand from north to south, where it eventually ends up in the Indiana Dunes.[citation needed] Winter storms erode some of Chicago’s beaches, and deposit the sand on others, requiring the Park District to supplement tons of sand yearly. The Chicago Lifeguard Service force is the largest of its kind in the nation, employing over a thousand guards in the summer (between Memorial Day weekend and Labor Day weekend). Chicago also has the most swimable and most guarded waterfront of any single municipality in the world. While many patrons complain about the cleanliness of the water, Chicago boasts the cleanest urban waterfront in the United States, and second in the world only to Stockholm; water is tested daily by the Chicago Park District for E. coli and other dangers.
History
Early beaches were generally funded by private entities such as hotels and private clubs.[5] Late 19th century ordinances prohibited public bathing in the lakes. Social reform movements lobbied for lakeshore use for recreational purposes by the poor and working class.[5] Late nineteenth century bathing norms created demand for public baths for the poor.[6] A second lobbyist motivation was that social refomers of the late nineteenth century saw public beaches as an opportunity to accommodate demand for public baths and eliminate the expenditure of enforcement resources on ordinance violations for public bathing.[5] The city responded by opening the first public bathing beach in 1895 in Lincoln Park primarily as a response to the efforts of the Free Bath and Sanitary League (formerly the Municipal Order League).[5] Spaces were designated for public use and the city accepted responsibility for maintaining the beaches.
By 1900 the lakefront was divided into zones of recreational, residential, agricultural and industrial uses. Lake Michigan water quality concerns lead to the reversal of the Chicago river with deep cut of the Illinois & Michigan canal in 1871 and the construction of the Sanitary and Ship Canal at the turn of the century.[1] The 1909 Burnham Plan led to development of the lakefront.[1] Lakefront development was dictated by recreational concerns instead of commercial ones due to the influence of Aaron Montgomery Ward. His belief that the foremost concern was for the public’s access to the Lake left its impression on the development of Jackson, Burnham, Grant and Lincoln Parks.[3] Continuing social reform efforts, led to the opening of several municipal beaches in the second decade of the twentieth century. The city reclaimed the privately owned lakefront beaches by the 1920s.[5] The 1919 Race Riot started a history of race riots related to beach resources. In this confrontation, a black youth unknowingly transgressed a racial line of demarcation on the beach and was stoned and drowned setting off days of rioting that lead to several deaths. Many other riots are mentioned under the appropriate beaches below.
Juneway Terrace Beach
Juneway Terrace Beach, located at the 7800 north block of Lake Michigan,[7] is the northernmost beach in Chicago, lies in Rogers Avenue Beach and Park. It is separated from Rogers Beach by a stretch of rip rap protecting three apartment buildings.
Rogers Beach
Rogers Beach lies in Rogers Avenue Beach and Park at 7705 north.[7] Barely one block long, the park also has tennis courts.
Howard Beach
Howard Beach lies in Howard Street Beach and Park at 7600 north,[7] which is just south of Howard Street. It is perhaps 213 feet (65 meters) long.
Jarvis Beach / Fargo Beach
Jarvis beach located at 7400 north and Fargo beach is located at 7432 north.[7] Offshore stretches of riprap act to reduce erosion of this beach, which is about three blocks long.
Loyola Beach / Leone Beach
Located at 7032 North Sheridan and extending for eight blocks, Leone Beach is Chicago’s largest.[8]
Pratt Beach
Contiguous with Leone/Loyola Beach located at 1050 West Pratt Boulevard.[7]
Hartigan Beach / Albion Beach
Contiguous with Pratt Beach, located at 6800 north,[7] ends just north of Loyola Avenue.
Columbia Beach
Columbia Beach is located at 6726 north.[7]
North Shore Beach
North Shore Beach is located at 6700 north.[7]
Thorndale Beach
Thorndale Beach is located at 5934 north.[7]
Kathy Osterman Beach (formerly Hollywood Beach)
Located at the 5800 North block where Lake Shore Drive ends at a curve that feeds into Sheridan Road (near West Hollywood Avenue and North Lake Shore Drive), this crescent-shaped beach serves two groups. The northern half is largely a family beach and the southern half is largely a gay men and lesbian beach.[9] The northern half of the beach has shallow water which makes it kid-friendly.[10]
Foster Avenue Beach
Foster Avenue Beach is located at 5200 north.[7]
Wilson Avenue / Montrose Avenue Beach
Montrose beach is a large north side beach. It is one of few beaches patrons may launch non-motorized watercraft, such as kayaks and catamarans into Lake Michigan. It also has one of only two dog beaches in the Chicago Park District, making it a popular beach for dog lovers. In the fenced off dog-friendly section at the north end of the beach leashless dogs are permitted once on the sand. Montrose beach hosts the Junior Guard regional championships every summer.
There is also an “unofficial” dog beach at Belmont Harbor, which is not officially a Chicago Park District beach. Wave action deposited a small triangular patch of sand in a protected corner of Belmont Harbor sometime in the 1980s. This beach is completely fenced in, but patrons allowing their dog off leash may still get ticketed. Wilson Avenue is 4600 north and Montose Avenue is 4400 north.[7] Thus, it is actually a misnomer that the dog beach is at Montrose Avenue Beach because the beach is at the northern end of these contiguous beaches.
Wilson Avenue Beach once officially located at the 4600 North Block, was at one time a private beach owned. In 1915, the City opened Clarendon Beach (now Montrose Avenue Beach) immediately to the south at the 4400 North Block as a public beach.[11] By 1929, 2 million people had visited the two long public beach.[11] In 1916, a clash over a suspected non-paying transgressor to the private beach led to the beating by lifeguards and members.[12]
North Avenue Beach
The North Avenue Beach, located at 1600 north,[7] is considered by many to be Chicago’s premier beach. It has the largest lifeguard staff and is home to the most developed beachhouse. Technically running from North Avenue to Diversey Harbor, North Avenue Beach is characterized by its piers which hold the sand in place and create a scalloped shoreline, terminating in a Cape Cod-like hook. The beach hosts international volleyball tournaments as well as millions of sun worshippers every year. North Avenue is also center stage for the Chicago Air & Water Show, which draws over a million people a day from Ohio to Diversey along the lakefront. North Avenue Beach is the site of the annual AVP Chicago Open (2006 is known as the AVP McDonald’s Chicago Open presented by Nautica). North Avenue Beach is also home to the only chess pavilion in Chicago.
Humboldt Park Beach
Located in a former lagoon of Humboldt Park which was dredged and given a sand bottom. At 41.9066° N 87.7031° W, this “beach” is mostly used by small children as a shallow wading pond. It is guarded in the summer and drained when not guarded.
Oak Street Beach
Oak Street Beach, located at 1000 north,[7] covers the area from the North Avenue ‘Hook’ Pier south to Ohio Street Beach (Illinois St. Beach, Olive Beach), about 1.5 mi (2 km). Oak Street is home to the largest area of deep water swimming in the city (1/2 mile (800 m) over 10 ft (3 m)), and is training grounds for hundreds of triathletes and distance swimmers. Until 2006 Oak Street Beach was also the only place in the city where SCUBA divers could dive close to the shore. The north ledge was once a hot spot for the city’s gay community, and still is a second home to thousands of sunbathers, runners, skaters and bikers. At one point Oak Street was the city’s most popular beach with its proximity to downtown and boasted tens of thousands of visitors each day.
Ohio Street Beach
A small beach in Olive Park located just north of Ohio Street (400N)[7] east of Lake Shore Drive. It faces north, rather than the usual east, because it formed on its own in a bay created by the Jardine Water Purification Plant which juts out into the Lake.
12th Street Beach
The 12th Street Beach is just south of the Adler Planetarium on Northerly Island (formerly the site of Meigs Field). The beach runs from about 1300 S to about 1450 S, but was named 12th Street Beach rather than (unlucky) 13th Street Beach. When 12th Street was renamed Roosevelt Road the beach retained its name, but now is sometimes called 14th Street Beach.
25th Street Beach / 26th Street Beach
No longer extant, these segregated beaches were the flashpoint of the Chicago Race Riot of 1919.
31st Street Beach
The 31st Street Beach is located in Burnham Park. The beach is host every year to the Junior Lifeguard Chicago Area Tug-o-War. Lifeguards here cover most of the area from the beach north to McCormick Place.
49th Street Beach
49th Street Beach is a small stone beach in Burnham Park. It is not guarded, so swimming is not allowed.
57th Street Beach
The 57th Street Beach is in the city’s Hyde Park neighborhood, across Lake Shore Drive from the Museum of Science and Industry. Recent renovations have made it easier to access with two large underpasses at the intersection of 57th Street and Lake Shore Drive. 57th Street Beach provides an area of deep swimming south of Promontory Point.
63rd Street Beach
The 63rd Street Beach is just outside of Jackson Park. It is home to the largest and oldest beach house in the City. In July 1913, Jackson Park Beach was the cite of a clash over required bathing attire when Dr. Rosalie Ladova was arrested for disorderly conduct for swimming in her bloomers after removing her bathing skirt.[13]
South Shore Beach
South Shore Beach is the beach behind the Chicago Park District’s South Shore Cultural Center (formerly South Shore Country Club), which is located at the intersection of 71st and South Shore Drive. The Country club is a magnificent old building and it home to a ballroom, restaurant, golf course and tennis courts. The Beach also runs up against 67th street beach and Jackson Park
Ashe Beach
Ashe Beach Park is a newer addition to the Chicago Park District’s beaches, bought in 1979 and named for the late tennis great Arthur Ashe, after he died of AIDS in 1993. In addition to the beach, the park features two tennis courts. It is located between 74th and 75th Streets.[14]
Rainbow Beach
Rainbow Beach is officially located at 3111 E. 77th St.,[15] is a beach in the Chicago Park District’s Rainbow Beach & Park that stretches from 75th Street to 78th Street on the Lake Michigan shoreline.[16] Rainbow Beach was named such in 1918.
Starting with the 1919 Race Riot, Chicago has had a long history of race riots related to use of public resources, such as parks and beaches. Rainbow beach was an area of controversy for black and white youth. Black families that were economically dependent on the nearby South Chicago steel mills had avoided the public hostility of the lifeguards and white bathers. Demographic shifts and racial climate change of the 1960’s led to a July 7 and 8, 1961 “freedom wade-in” at Rainbow Beach staged by an interracial coalition of demonstrators, including members of the NAACP Youth Council.[17]
Calumet Beach
Calumet Park,[18] which is not to be confused with Calumet Park, IL, contains beaches located at the 9600, 9800 and 9900 South blocks along Lake Michigan. The main beach has a Beach House with a concessions stand.
Lake Michigan
Lake Michigan
Lake Michigan is one of the five Great Lakes of North America, and the only one located entirely within the United States. It is bounded, from west to east, by the U.S. states of Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan. The word “Michigan” was originally used to refer to the lake itself, and is believed to come from the Ojibwa Indian word mishigami, meaning “great water.”[2]
Lake Michigan (44° N, 87° W) is the only one of the Great Lakes wholly within the borders of the United States; the others are shared with Canada. It has a surface area of 22,400 square miles (58,016 km²),[1] making it the largest freshwater lake in the U.S., the largest lake entirely within one country by surface area (Lake Baikal, in Russia, is by water volume), and the fifth largest lake in the world. It is 307 miles (494 km) long by 118 miles (190 km) wide with a shoreline 1,640 miles (2,633 km) long. The lake’s average depth is 279 feet (85 m), while its greatest depth is 923 feet (281 m).[1] It contains a volume of 1,180 cubic miles (4,918 cubic km) of water. Its surface averages 577 feet (176 m)[1] above sea level, the same as Lake Huron, to which it is connected through the Straits of Mackinac.
Major cities
12 million people live along Lake Michigan’s shores. Many small cities in Northern Michigan are centered on a tourist base that takes advantage of the beauty and recreational opportunities offered by Lake Michigan. These cities have large seasonal populations that arrive from Chicago, Milwaukee, Detroit, and inland cities in Southern Michigan. The southern tip of the lake is heavily industrialized. Cities on the shores of Lake Michigan with populations larger than 30,000 include:
Illinois
Chicago
Evanston
Highland Park
North Chicago
Waukegan
Indiana
East Chicago
Gary
Hammond
Michigan City
Portage
Michigan
Holland
Muskegon
St. Joseph
Benton Harbor
Wisconsin
Green Bay
Kenosha
Manitowoc
Milwaukee
Racine
Sheboygan
Beaches
Lake Michigan beaches, especially those in Michigan and Northern Indiana, are known for their beauty. The region is often referred to as the “Third Coast” of the United States, after those of the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. The sand is soft and off-white, known as “singing sands” because of the squeaking noise (caused by high quartz content) made when one walks across it. There are often high sand dunes covered in green beach grass and sand cherries, and the water is usually clear and cold (between 55 and 70 °F/13 and 21 °C) [1], even in late summer. Lake Michigan beaches in Northern Michigan are the only place in the world, aside from a few inland lakes in that region, where one can find Petoskey stones, the state stone.
The beaches of the western coast and the northernmost part of the east coast are rocky, while the southern and eastern beaches are sandy and dune covered. This is partly because of the prevailing winds from the west which also cause thick layers of ice to build up on the eastern shore in winter.
Contrary to recent reports, Chicago annually imports fresh sand to replenish the popular city beaches (similar to Key West) but much of the city waterfront is parks, stone revetments, marinas or residential developments in the north or industrial sites in the south. (see Chicago beaches)
Some environmental problems still plague the lake. Steel mills are visible along the Indiana shoreline, and the pollution caused by these mills is believed to contribute to the color of sunsets. Also, the Chicago Tribune reported that BP is a major polluter, dumping thousands of pounds of ammonia and raw sludge into Lake Michigan every day from its Whiting, Indiana oil refinery. [3]
The Chicago skyline can be seen from the Indiana shore, but when standing on the beaches in Wisconsin or Lower Michigan, it is impossible to see across the lake, providing a view similar to that found on ocean coasts.
Car ferries
Motorists can cross Lake Michigan by the SS Badger, a ferry that runs from Manitowoc, Wisconsin, to Ludington, Michigan. The Lake Express is another ferry, established in 2004, which carries motorists across the lake between Milwaukee, Wisconsin and Muskegon, Michigan, at a much higher speed than the SS Badger.
Islands
Beaver Island
North Manitou Island
South Manitou Island
Washington Island
Rock Island
Parks
The National Park Service maintains the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore and Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. Part of the shoreline is within the Hiawatha National Forest and the Manistee National Forest. The Michigan Islands National Wildlife Refuge is within the lake.
There are numerous state parks located on the shores of the lake or on islands within the lake.
Peninsula State Park
Holland State Park
Grand Haven State Park
Hoffmaster State Park
Ludington State Park
Silver Lake State Park
Illinois Beach State Park
Indiana Dunes State Park
Lighthouses
Illinois lighthouses
Indiana lighthouses
Michigan lighthouses
Wisconsin lighthouses
Geology
Geologically and hydrologically, Michigan and Huron are the same body of water (sometimes called Lake Michigan-Huron), but are geographically distinct. Counted together, it is the largest fresh water body in the world by surface area. The Mackinac Bridge is generally considered the dividing line between them. Both lakes are part of the Great Lakes Waterway. In earlier maps of the region, the name “Lake Illinois” has been found in place of “Michigan.”
Ecology
Lake Michigan is home to a variety of species of fish and other organisms. It was originally home to lake trout, yellow perch, panfish, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, carp, bowfin, as well as some species of catfish. In recent years overfishing has caused a decline in lake trout which ultimately caused an increase in the alewife population. As a result, coho and chinook salmon were introduced as a predator of alewives to decrease the alewife population. Lake Michigan is now being stocked with several species of fish. However, several invader species introduced, such as lampreys, threaten the vitality of fish populations.
See also
Jardine Water Purification Plant 1 billion gal. of water/day
External links
American Society of Civil Engineers
American Society of Civil Engineers
The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) is a professional body founded in 1852 to represent members of the civil engineering profession worldwide. It is the oldest national engineering society in the United States. ASCE’s vision is to have engineers positioned as global leaders who strive toward building a better quality of life. Its world headquarters is in Reston, Virginia.
Vision and mission
ASCE envisions a world led, in part, by engineers who can assist in building a better quailty of life for everyone.
ASCE’s mission is to provide essential value to its members and their careers; to its partners and to the public.[1] ASCE seeks to provide value by:
- Developing leadership skills in its members and supporting civil engineer leaders;
- Facilitating advancment of the technology utilized by the profession;
- Encouraging and providing tools for lifelong learning within the profession;
- Advocating infrastructure and environmental stewardship; and
- Promoting professionalism and the civil engineering profession.[2]
History and heritage
ASCE was founded in 1852 when twelve members of the organization met at the Croton Aqueduct on November 5 and decided to incorporate what was then known as the American Society of Civil Engineers and Architects.[3]
As part of understanding the history of civil engineering and promoting the civil engineering profession, a survey of the historic accomplishments of civil engineers is continually conducted by ASCE members. Such reviews of civil engineering accomplishments have produced various lists of the notable categories and projects of the profession.
Monuments of the Millennium
The society canvassed its members in 1999 to identify the ten civil engineering achievements that had the greatest positive impact on life in the 20th century. They chose to recognize broad categories of achievements rather than individual projects:[4]
- Airport design and development, as exemplified by the Kansai International Airport
Dams, as exemplified by Hoover Dam
- The Interstate highway system
- Long-span bridges, as exemplified by the Golden Gate Bridge
- Rail transportation, as exemplified by the Eurotunnel rail system
- Sanitary landfills and solid waste disposal
- Skyscrapers, as exemplified by the Empire State Building
- Wastewater treatment, as exemplified by the Chicago wastewater system
- Water supply and distribution, as exemplified by the California State Water Project, the subject of California Water Wars
Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks
ASCE designates national and international Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks.
World Wonders
Similarly, in an effort to recognize a contemporary equivalent to the heralded ancient Seven Wonders of the World, the ASCE has designated the following Seven Wonders of the Modern World:[5]
- The Empire State Building (New York, NY, USA)
- The Itaipu Dam (Brazil and Paraguay)
- The Panama Canal (Panama)
- The Channel Tunnel (France and United Kingdom)
- The Delta Works, North Sea protection works (The Netherlands)
- The Golden Gate Bridge (San Francisco, USA)
Other prominent candidates include:
- The Statue of Liberty (New York, NY, USA)
- The Eiffel Tower (Paris, France)
- The Forth Bridge (Scotland, UK)
- The Petronas Twin Towers (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia)
Clock Tower, Palace of Westminster (London, United Kingdom)
Peer reviews
ASCE provides peer reviews of public agencies and projects, at their request. Peer reviews are “a means to improve the management and quality of [public agency] services and thus better protect the public health and safety with which they are entrusted.”[6][7]
Controversy in New Orleans levee investigation
In October 2005, after the failures of the federally controlled levees in Greater New Orleans, Lt Gen Carl Strock P.E.,M.ASCE, the United States Army Corps of Engineers commander and chief requested that ASCE create an expert review panel (ERP) to peer review the Corps-sponsored Interagency Performance Evaluation Task Force (IPET), the body commissioned by the Corps to assess the performance of the hurricane protection system in metro New Orleans. Lawrence Roth P.E.,F.ASCE, Deputy Executive Director of the ASCE led the ERP development, served as the panel’s Chief of Staff and facilitated the panel’s interaction with IPET.[8] The role of the ERP – which is composed of 14 specialists who possess a range of technical expertise – is to provide an independent technical review of the IPET’s activities and findings. Roth stated at a National Research Council meeting in New Orleans, that “an independent review panel” such as the ERP “ensure[s] that the outcome is a robust, credible and defensible performance evaluation.”[9] All members of the ERP panel received Outstanding Civilian Service Medals from Lt. Gen Strock on February 12, 2007.[8] The ERP’s findings were released three months later on June 1, 2007 in a report entitled The New Orleans Hurricane Protection System: What Went Wrong and Why.[10][11]
Shortly after the release of the ERP’s findings, ASCE administration was criticized by The Times-Picayune for an apparent attempt to minimize and understate the role of the Army Corps in the flooding. The Times-Picayune editorial called attention to a press release issued by ASCE which accompanied the ERP report that contained information not present in the report and information that conflicted with the report.[12]
On November 14, 2007 the ASCE confirmed the launch of an internal ethics probe of its staff and members based on complaints by a University of California-Berkeley professor, who served on a separate independent panel investigating levee failures. [13] President David Mongan, in a letter to the Times Picayune assured the citizens of metro New Orleans that ASCE takes “this matter very seriously and that appropriate actions are being taken.”[14]
Publications
ASCE sponsors a large number of civil engineering related professional publications in the United States. Journals published by ASCE include:
Journal of Environmental Engineering
Journal of Hydrologic Engineering
Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management
Awards
ASCE sponsors numerous awards for outstanding work in various areas of civil engineering, some of which are based on papers submitted to its many journals.
Wesley W. Horner Award
Initially created in 1968 by ASCE’s Sanitary Engineering Division, the award is named after former ASCE President Wesley W. Horner. The award is given to a recently peer reviewed published paper in the fields of hydrology, urban drainage, or sewerage. Special consideration is given to private practice engineering work that is recognized as a valuable contribution to the field of environmental engineering.[15]
Competitions
ASCE also sponsors competitions for student chapters. Each regional conference determines the events. Two major national competitions include:
Steel Bridge (Co-sponsored with American Institute of Steel Construction) Official Site
External links
Video about ASCE selected Seven Wonders of the Modern World. A virtual satellite tour made with Google Earth (02:38)
Architecture
Architecture
Architecture is the art and science of designing buildings and other physical structures. A wider definition often includes the design of the total built environment from the macrolevel of town planning, urban design, and landscape architecture to the microlevel of construction details and, sometimes, furniture. The term “Architecture” is also used for the profession of providing architectural services.
Architectural design is primarily driven by the creative manipulation of mass, space, volume, texture, light, shadow, materials, program, and pragmatic elements such as cost, construction and technology, in order to achieve an end which is aesthetic, functional and often artistic. This distinguishes architecture from engineering design, which is driven primarily by the creative manipulation of materials and forms using mathematical and scientific principles.
Architectural works are perceived as cultural and political symbols and works of art. Historical civilizations are often known primarily through their architectural achievements. Such buildings as the pyramids of Egypt and the Roman Colosseum are cultural symbols, and are an important link in public consciousness, even when scholars have discovered much about a past civilization through other means. Cities, regions and cultures continue to identify themselves with and are known by their architectural monuments.[1]
Etymology and application of the term
The word “architecture” comes from the Latin, “architectura” and ultimately from Greek,”arkitekton”, αρχιτεκτων, an architect, or more precisely “master builder”, from the combination of αρχι a “chief” or “leader” and τεκτων, a “builder” or “carpenter.”
While the primary application of the word “architecture” pertains to the built environment, by extension, the term has come to denote the art and discipline of creating an actual, or inferring an implied or apparent plan of any complex object or system. The term can be used to connote the implied architecture of abstract things such as music or mathematics, the apparent architecture of natural things, such as geological formations or the structure of biological cells, or explicitly planned architectures of human-made things such as software, computers, enterprises, and databases, in addition to buildings. In every usage, an architecture may be seen as a subjective mapping from a human perspective (that of the user in the case of abstract or physical artifacts) to the elements or components of some kind of structure or system, which preserves the relationships among the elements or components.
The Architect
Architecture as a profession is the practice of providing architectural services. The practice of architecture includes the planning, designing and oversight of a building’s construction by an architect. Architectural services typically address both feasibility and cost for the builder, as well as function and aesthetics for the user.
Architecture did not start to become professionalized until the late nineteenth century. Before then, architects had ateliers and architectural education varied, from a more formal training as at the École des Beaux-Arts in France, which was founded in the mid seventeenth century, to the more informal system where students worked in an atelier until they could become independent. There were also so-called gentlemen architects, which were architects with private means. This was a tradition particularly strong in England during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Lord Burlington, designer of Chiswick House, (1723-49) is an example.
Some architects were also sculptors, such as Bernini, theater designers such as Filippo Juvarra and John Vanbrugh, and painters, such as Michelangelo and Le Corbusier.
In the 1440s, the Florentine architect, Alberti, wrote his De Re Aedificatoria, published in 1485, a year before the first edition of Vitruvius, with which he was already familiar.[2].[3] Alberti gives the earliest definition of the role of the architect. The architect is to be concerned firstly with the construction. This encompasses all the practical matters of site, of materials and their limitations and of human capability. The second concern is “articulation”; the building must work and must please and suit the needs of those who use it. The third concern of the architect is aesthetics, both of proportion and of ornament.
The role of the architect is constantly evolving, and is central to the design and implementation of the environments in which people live. In order to obtain the skills and knowledge required to design, plan and oversee a diverse range of projects, architects must go through extensive formal education, coupled with a requisite amount of professional practice.
The work of an architect is an interdisciplinary field, drawing upon mathematics, science, art, technology, social sciences, politics and history, and often governed by the architect’s personal approach or philosophy. Vitruvius, the earliest known architectural theorist, states: “Architecture is a science, arising out of many other sciences, and adorned with much and varied learning: by the help of which a judgement is formed of those works which are the result of other arts.” He adds that an architect should be well versed in other fields of learning such as music and astronomy.[3] Vitruvius’ broad definition of the architect still holds true to some extent today, even though business concerns and the computer have reshaped the activities and definition of the modern architect in significant ways.
Theory of Architecture
Historic treatises
The earliest written work on the subject of architecture is De architectura, by the Roman architect Vitruvius in the early 1st century CE.[3] According to Vitruvius a good building should satisfy the three principles of firmitatis utilitatis venustatis,[5] [6] which translates roughly as -
- durability – it should stand up robustly and remain in good condition.
- utility – it should be useful; and function well for the people using it.
- beauty – it should delight people, and raise their spirits.
According to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfil each of these three attributes as well as possible.
Leone Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, although ornament also played a part. For Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden Mean. The most important aspect of beauty was therefore an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially; and was based on universal, recognisable truths. The notion of style in the arts was not developed until the 16th century, with the writing of Vasari.[7] The treatises, by the 18th century, had been translated into Italian, French, Spanish and English.
In the early nineteenth century, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin wrote Contrasts (1836) that, as the titled suggested, contrasted the modern, industrial world, which he disparaged, with an idealized image of neo-medieval world. Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only “true Christian form of architecture.”
The 19th century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, published 1849,[8] was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture. Architecture was the “art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by man … that the sight of them” contributes “to his mental health, power, and pleasure”. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance. His work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way “adorned”. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, at the very least.
On the difference between the ideals of “architecture” and mere “construction”, the renowned 20th C. architect Le Corbusier wrote: “You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That is Architecture”.[9]
Modern concepts of architecture
The great 19th century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design: “Form follows function“.
While the notion that structural and aesthetic considerations should be entirely subject to functionality was met with both popularity and scepticism, it had the effect of introducing the concept of “function” in place of Vitruvius “utility”. “Function” came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural.
Nunzia Rondanini stated, “Through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond the functional aspects that it has in common with other human sciences. Through its own particular way of expressing values, architecture can stimulate and influence social life without presuming that, in and of itself, it will promote social development. To restrict the meaning of (architectural) formalism to art for art’s sake is not only reactionary; it can also be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades form into a mere instrumentality”.[10]
Ivar Holm points out that the values and attitudes which underly modern architecture differ both between the schools of thought which influence architecture and between individual practising architects.[11] Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are rationalism, empiricism, structuralism, poststructuralism, and phenomenology.
In the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both structure and function, the consideration of sustainability. To satisfy the modern ethos a building should be constructed in a manner which is environmentally friendly in terms of the production of its materials, its impact upon the natural and built environment of its surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon non-sustainable power sources for heating, cooling, water and waste management and lighting.
There is also a concept among architects that although architecture does not exist in a vacuum, architectural form cannot be merely a compilation of historical precedent, functional necessities, and socially aware concerns, but that to achieve significance, a work of architecture must be a transcendent synthesis of all of the former and a creation of worth in and of itself.
History
Origins and the ancient world
Architecture first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available building materials and attendant skills). As human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, architecture became a craft. Here there is first a process of trial and error, and later improvisation or replication of a successful trial. What is termed Vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every day.
Early human settlements were mostly rural. Due to a surplus in production the economy began to expand resulting in urbanization thus creating urban areas which grew and evolved very rapidly in some cases, such as that of Çatal Huyuk in Anatolia and Mohenjo Daro in India. In many ancient civilizations, like the Egyptians’ and Mesopotamians’, architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural, while in other ancient cultures such as Persia architecture and urban planning was used to exemplify the power of the state.
The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged. Architectural styles developed.
Texts on architecture began to be written in the Classical period. These became canons to be followed in important works, especially religious architecture. Some examples of canons are found in the writings of Vitruvius, the KaoGongJi of ancient China[12] and Vaastu Shastra of ancient India.
The architecture of different parts of Asia developed along different lines to that of Europe, Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture each having different characteristics. Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great regional diversity. In many Asian countries a pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed specifically to enhance the natural landscape.
The Medieval builder
Islamic architecture began in the 7th century CE, developing from the architectural forms of the ancient Middle East but developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, North Africa and Spain, and were to become a significant stylistic influence on European architecture during the Medieval period.
In Europe, in both the Classical and Medieval periods, buildings were not attributed to specific individuals and the names of the architects frequently unknown, despite the vast scale of the many religious buildings extant from this period. During the Medieval period guilds were formed by craftsmen to organise their trade and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of architect was usually one with master builder, except in the case where a cleric, such as the Abbot Suger at Saint Denis, Paris, provided the design. Over time the complexity of buildings and their types increased. General civil construction such as roads and bridges began to be built. Many new building types such as schools, hospitals, and recreational facilities emerged.
Renaissance and the architect
With the Renaissance and its emphasis on the individual and humanity rather than religion, and with all its attendant progress and achievements, a new chapter began. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects – Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, Palladio – and the cult of the individual had begun. But there was no dividing line between artist, architect and engineer, or any of the related vocations. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist.
The Industrial Revolution
With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology, architecture and engineering began to separate, and the architect began to lose ground on some technical aspects of building design. He therefore concentrated on aesthetics and the humanist aspects.
There was also the rise of the “gentleman architect” who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes, typified by the many country houses of Great Britain that were created in the Neo Gothic or Scottish Baronial styles.
Formal architectural training, in the 19th century, at, for example Ecole des Beaux Arts in France, gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility. Effective architects generally received their training in the offices of other architects, graduating to the role from draughtsmen or clerks.
Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass production and consumption. Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production. Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental. House builders could access current architectural design in their work by combining features found in pattern books and architectural journals.
Modernism and reaction of architecture
The dissatisfaction with such a general situation at the turn of the twentieth century gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to Modern Architecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial design is usually placed here.
Following this lead, the Bauhaus school, founded in Germany in 1919, consciously rejected history and looked at architecture as a synthesis of art, craft, and technology.
When Modern architecture was first practiced, it was an avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after World War I, pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. They rejected the architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic order.
The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functionalist details. Buildings that displayed their construction and structure, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind traditional forms, were seen as beautiful in their own right. Architects such as Mies van der Rohe worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution.
Many architects resisted Modernism, finding it devoid of the decorative richness of ornamented styles. As the founders of the International Style lost influence in the late 1970s, Postmodernism developed as a reaction against the austerity of Modernism. Robert Venturi’s contention that a “decorated shed” (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) was better than a “duck” (a building in which the whole form and its function are tied together) gives an idea of this approach.
Architecture today
Part of the architectural profession, and also some non-architects, responded to Modernism and Postmodernism by going to what they considered the root of the problem. They felt that architecture was not a personal philosophical or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it had to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to give a livable environment. The Design Methodology Movement involving people such as Christopher Alexander started searching for more people-oriented designs. Extensive studies on areas such as behavioral, environmental, and social sciences were done and started informing the design process.
As many other concerns began to be recognized and the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of aspects such as structural systems, services and technologies), architecture started becoming more multi-disciplinary than ever. Architecture today usually requires a team of specialist professionals, with the architect being one of many, although usually the team leader.
During the last two decades of the twentieth century and into the new millennium, the field of architecture saw the rise of specializations within the profession itself by project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods. In addition, there has been an increased separation of the ‘design’ architect[a] from the ‘project’ architect[b] within some architectural office collaborations.
One of most significant recent developments in the profession is the mainstreaming of sustainability. Sustainability in architecture was pioneered in the 1970s by architects such as Ian McHarg in the US and Brenda and Robert Vale in the UK and New Zealand. The acceleration in numbers of buildings which seek to meet sustainable design principles is inline with a growing world-wide awareness of the risks of climate change. It is now widely expected of an architect that they will integrate sustainable principles into their projects. [13]
See also
Acoustics
Architect
Architectural engineering
Architectural history
Architectural style
Architectural theory
Architecture timeline
Building
Building code
Building engineering
Building Envelope
Building materials
Civil Engineering
Construction
Environmental design
History of Architecture
Interior Design
Landscape Architecture
List of architecture magazines
List of buildings
List of notable architects
Mathematics and architecture
Real Estate (Property) Development
Religious architecture
Structural Engineering
Surveying
Sustainable design
Urban Planning
Urban design
Vernacular architecture
External links
Architecture.com, published by Royal Institute of British Architects
Architecture
Architecture
Architecture is the art and science of designing buildings and other physical structures. A wider definition often includes the design of the total built environment from the macrolevel of town planning, urban design, and landscape architecture to the microlevel of construction details and, sometimes, furniture. The term “Architecture” is also used for the profession of providing architectural services.
Architectural design is primarily driven by the creative manipulation of mass, space, volume, texture, light, shadow, materials, program, and pragmatic elements such as cost, construction and technology, in order to achieve an end which is aesthetic, functional and often artistic. This distinguishes architecture from engineering design, which is driven primarily by the creative manipulation of materials and forms using mathematical and scientific principles.
Architectural works are perceived as cultural and political symbols and works of art. Historical civilizations are often known primarily through their architectural achievements. Such buildings as the pyramids of Egypt and the Roman Colosseum are cultural symbols, and are an important link in public consciousness, even when scholars have discovered much about a past civilization through other means. Cities, regions and cultures continue to identify themselves with and are known by their architectural monuments.[1]
Etymology and application of the term
The word “architecture” comes from the Latin, “architectura” and ultimately from Greek,”arkitekton”, αρχιτεκτων, an architect, or more precisely “master builder”, from the combination of αρχι a “chief” or “leader” and τεκτων, a “builder” or “carpenter.”
While the primary application of the word “architecture” pertains to the built environment, by extension, the term has come to denote the art and discipline of creating an actual, or inferring an implied or apparent plan of any complex object or system. The term can be used to connote the implied architecture of abstract things such as music or mathematics, the apparent architecture of natural things, such as geological formations or the structure of biological cells, or explicitly planned architectures of human-made things such as software, computers, enterprises, and databases, in addition to buildings. In every usage, an architecture may be seen as a subjective mapping from a human perspective (that of the user in the case of abstract or physical artifacts) to the elements or components of some kind of structure or system, which preserves the relationships among the elements or components.
The Architect
Architecture as a profession is the practice of providing architectural services. The practice of architecture includes the planning, designing and oversight of a building’s construction by an architect. Architectural services typically address both feasibility and cost for the builder, as well as function and aesthetics for the user.
Architecture did not start to become professionalized until the late nineteenth century. Before then, architects had ateliers and architectural education varied, from a more formal training as at the École des Beaux-Arts in France, which was founded in the mid seventeenth century, to the more informal system where students worked in an atelier until they could become independent. There were also so-called gentlemen architects, which were architects with private means. This was a tradition particularly strong in England during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Lord Burlington, designer of Chiswick House, (1723-49) is an example.
Some architects were also sculptors, such as Bernini, theater designers such as Filippo Juvarra and John Vanbrugh, and painters, such as Michelangelo and Le Corbusier.
In the 1440s, the Florentine architect, Alberti, wrote his De Re Aedificatoria, published in 1485, a year before the first edition of Vitruvius, with which he was already familiar.[2].[3] Alberti gives the earliest definition of the role of the architect. The architect is to be concerned firstly with the construction. This encompasses all the practical matters of site, of materials and their limitations and of human capability. The second concern is “articulation”; the building must work and must please and suit the needs of those who use it. The third concern of the architect is aesthetics, both of proportion and of ornament.
The role of the architect is constantly evolving, and is central to the design and implementation of the environments in which people live. In order to obtain the skills and knowledge required to design, plan and oversee a diverse range of projects, architects must go through extensive formal education, coupled with a requisite amount of professional practice.
The work of an architect is an interdisciplinary field, drawing upon mathematics, science, art, technology, social sciences, politics and history, and often governed by the architect’s personal approach or philosophy. Vitruvius, the earliest known architectural theorist, states: “Architecture is a science, arising out of many other sciences, and adorned with much and varied learning: by the help of which a judgement is formed of those works which are the result of other arts.” He adds that an architect should be well versed in other fields of learning such as music and astronomy.[3] Vitruvius’ broad definition of the architect still holds true to some extent today, even though business concerns and the computer have reshaped the activities and definition of the modern architect in significant ways.
Theory of Architecture
Historic treatises
The earliest written work on the subject of architecture is De architectura, by the Roman architect Vitruvius in the early 1st century CE.[3] According to Vitruvius a good building should satisfy the three principles of firmitatis utilitatis venustatis,[5] [6] which translates roughly as -
- durability – it should stand up robustly and remain in good condition.
- utility – it should be useful; and function well for the people using it.
- beauty – it should delight people, and raise their spirits.
According to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfil each of these three attributes as well as possible.
Leone Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, although ornament also played a part. For Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden Mean. The most important aspect of beauty was therefore an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially; and was based on universal, recognisable truths. The notion of style in the arts was not developed until the 16th century, with the writing of Vasari.[7] The treatises, by the 18th century, had been translated into Italian, French, Spanish and English.
In the early nineteenth century, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin wrote Contrasts (1836) that, as the titled suggested, contrasted the modern, industrial world, which he disparaged, with an idealized image of neo-medieval world. Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only “true Christian form of architecture.”
The 19th century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, published 1849,[8] was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture. Architecture was the “art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by man … that the sight of them” contributes “to his mental health, power, and pleasure”. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance. His work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way “adorned”. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, at the very least.
On the difference between the ideals of “architecture” and mere “construction”, the renowned 20th C. architect Le Corbusier wrote: “You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That is Architecture”.[9]
Modern concepts of architecture
The great 19th century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design: “Form follows function“.
While the notion that structural and aesthetic considerations should be entirely subject to functionality was met with both popularity and scepticism, it had the effect of introducing the concept of “function” in place of Vitruvius “utility”. “Function” came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural.
Nunzia Rondanini stated, “Through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond the functional aspects that it has in common with other human sciences. Through its own particular way of expressing values, architecture can stimulate and influence social life without presuming that, in and of itself, it will promote social development. To restrict the meaning of (architectural) formalism to art for art’s sake is not only reactionary; it can also be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades form into a mere instrumentality”.[10]
Ivar Holm points out that the values and attitudes which underly modern architecture differ both between the schools of thought which influence architecture and between individual practising architects.[11] Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are rationalism, empiricism, structuralism, poststructuralism, and phenomenology.
In the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both structure and function, the consideration of sustainability. To satisfy the modern ethos a building should be constructed in a manner which is environmentally friendly in terms of the production of its materials, its impact upon the natural and built environment of its surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon non-sustainable power sources for heating, cooling, water and waste management and lighting.
There is also a concept among architects that although architecture does not exist in a vacuum, architectural form cannot be merely a compilation of historical precedent, functional necessities, and socially aware concerns, but that to achieve significance, a work of architecture must be a transcendent synthesis of all of the former and a creation of worth in and of itself.
History
Origins and the ancient world
Architecture first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available building materials and attendant skills). As human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, architecture became a craft. Here there is first a process of trial and error, and later improvisation or replication of a successful trial. What is termed Vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every day.
Early human settlements were mostly rural. Due to a surplus in production the economy began to expand resulting in urbanization thus creating urban areas which grew and evolved very rapidly in some cases, such as that of Çatal Huyuk in Anatolia and Mohenjo Daro in India. In many ancient civilizations, like the Egyptians’ and Mesopotamians’, architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural, while in other ancient cultures such as Persia architecture and urban planning was used to exemplify the power of the state.
The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged. Architectural styles developed.
Texts on architecture began to be written in the Classical period. These became canons to be followed in important works, especially religious architecture. Some examples of canons are found in the writings of Vitruvius, the KaoGongJi of ancient China[12] and Vaastu Shastra of ancient India.
The architecture of different parts of Asia developed along different lines to that of Europe, Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture each having different characteristics. Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great regional diversity. In many Asian countries a pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed specifically to enhance the natural landscape.
The Medieval builder
Islamic architecture began in the 7th century CE, developing from the architectural forms of the ancient Middle East but developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, North Africa and Spain, and were to become a significant stylistic influence on European architecture during the Medieval period.
In Europe, in both the Classical and Medieval periods, buildings were not attributed to specific individuals and the names of the architects frequently unknown, despite the vast scale of the many religious buildings extant from this period. During the Medieval period guilds were formed by craftsmen to organise their trade and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of architect was usually one with master builder, except in the case where a cleric, such as the Abbot Suger at Saint Denis, Paris, provided the design. Over time the complexity of buildings and their types increased. General civil construction such as roads and bridges began to be built. Many new building types such as schools, hospitals, and recreational facilities emerged.
Renaissance and the architect
With the Renaissance and its emphasis on the individual and humanity rather than religion, and with all its attendant progress and achievements, a new chapter began. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects – Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, Palladio – and the cult of the individual had begun. But there was no dividing line between artist, architect and engineer, or any of the related vocations. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist.
The Industrial Revolution
With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology, architecture and engineering began to separate, and the architect began to lose ground on some technical aspects of building design. He therefore concentrated on aesthetics and the humanist aspects.
There was also the rise of the “gentleman architect” who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes, typified by the many country houses of Great Britain that were created in the Neo Gothic or Scottish Baronial styles.
Formal architectural training, in the 19th century, at, for example Ecole des Beaux Arts in France, gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility. Effective architects generally received their training in the offices of other architects, graduating to the role from draughtsmen or clerks.
Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass production and consumption. Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production. Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental. House builders could access current architectural design in their work by combining features found in pattern books and architectural journals.
Modernism and reaction of architecture
The dissatisfaction with such a general situation at the turn of the twentieth century gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to Modern Architecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial design is usually placed here.
Following this lead, the Bauhaus school, founded in Germany in 1919, consciously rejected history and looked at architecture as a synthesis of art, craft, and technology.
When Modern architecture was first practiced, it was an avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after World War I, pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. They rejected the architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic order.
The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functionalist details. Buildings that displayed their construction and structure, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind traditional forms, were seen as beautiful in their own right. Architects such as Mies van der Rohe worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution.
Many architects resisted Modernism, finding it devoid of the decorative richness of ornamented styles. As the founders of the International Style lost influence in the late 1970s, Postmodernism developed as a reaction against the austerity of Modernism. Robert Venturi’s contention that a “decorated shed” (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) was better than a “duck” (a building in which the whole form and its function are tied together) gives an idea of this approach.
Architecture today
Part of the architectural profession, and also some non-architects, responded to Modernism and Postmodernism by going to what they considered the root of the problem. They felt that architecture was not a personal philosophical or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it had to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to give a livable environment. The Design Methodology Movement involving people such as Christopher Alexander started searching for more people-oriented designs. Extensive studies on areas such as behavioral, environmental, and social sciences were done and started informing the design process.
As many other concerns began to be recognized and the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of aspects such as structural systems, services and technologies), architecture started becoming more multi-disciplinary than ever. Architecture today usually requires a team of specialist professionals, with the architect being one of many, although usually the team leader.
During the last two decades of the twentieth century and into the new millennium, the field of architecture saw the rise of specializations within the profession itself by project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods. In addition, there has been an increased separation of the ‘design’ architect[a] from the ‘project’ architect[b] within some architectural office collaborations.
One of most significant recent developments in the profession is the mainstreaming of sustainability. Sustainability in architecture was pioneered in the 1970s by architects such as Ian McHarg in the US and Brenda and Robert Vale in the UK and New Zealand. The acceleration in numbers of buildings which seek to meet sustainable design principles is inline with a growing world-wide awareness of the risks of climate change. It is now widely expected of an architect that they will integrate sustainable principles into their projects. [13]
See also
Acoustics
Architect
Architectural engineering
Architectural history
Architectural style
Architectural theory
Architecture timeline
Building
Building code
Building engineering
Building Envelope
Building materials
Civil Engineering
Construction
Environmental design
History of Architecture
Interior Design
Landscape Architecture
List of architecture magazines
List of buildings
List of notable architects
Mathematics and architecture
Real Estate (Property) Development
Religious architecture
Structural Engineering
Surveying
Sustainable design
Urban Planning
Urban design
Vernacular architecture
External links
Architecture.com, published by Royal Institute of British Architects
Vernacular architecture
Vernacular architecture
Vernacular architecture is a term used to categorize methods of construction which use locally available resources to address local needs. Vernacular architecture tends to evolve over time to reflect the environmental, cultural and historical context in which it exists. It has often been dismissed as crude and unrefined, but also has proponents who highlight its importance in current design.[1]
In contrast to planned architecture by architects, the building knowledge in vernacular architecture is often transported by local traditions and is thus more – but not only – based on knowledge achieved by trial and error and often handed down through the generations rather than calculated on knowledge of geometry and physics. This of course does not exclude architects from using vernacular architecture in their designs or being firmly based in their regional vernacular architecture. For the similarities to “traditional architecture” see below.
Derivation and Definition
The term vernacular is derived from the Latin vernaculus – a slave quarter at the back of the master’s garden – In terms of language, vernacular refers to language use particular to a time, place or group. In architecture it refers to that type of architecture which is indigenous to a specific time or place (not imported or copied from elsewhere). It is most often used to apply to residential buildings.[2]
The term is not to be confused with so-called “traditional” architecture, though there are links between the two. Vernacular architecture may, through time, be adopted and refined into culturally accepted solutions, but only through repetition may it become “traditional.” Traditional architecture can also include temples and palaces, for example, which would not be included usually in the rubric of “vernacular.” In Japan, for example, not all pre-modern architecture is “vernacular,” which would usually refer only to rural buildings and structures. In the US, vernacular architecture might refer to a so-called craftsman bungalow, fashionable in the nineteenth century, even though the bungalow as an architectural form did not originate in the US. “Vernacular” might even refer to a building like the 1848 Duncan House in Cooksville, Wisconsin. All in all, the use of the term “vernacular” can be quite ambiguous.
Humanitarian Response
An appreciation of vernacular architecture is increasingly seen as vital in the immediate response to disasters and the following construction of transitional shelter if it is needed. The work Transitional Settlement: Displaced Populations, produced by Shelter Centre covers the use of vernacular in humanitarian response and argues its importance.
The value of housing displaced people in shelters which are in some way familiar is seen to provide reassurance and comfort following often very traumatic times. As the needs change from saving lives to providing medium to long term shelter the construction of locally appropriate and accepted housing can be very important.[3]
External links
Built environment
Built environment
The phrase built environment refers to the man-made surroundings that provide the setting for human activity, ranging from the large-scale civic surroundings to the personal places.
In architecture and environmental psychology, the phrase is a useful acknowledgement that a small fraction of buildings constructed annually, even in the industrialized world, are designed by architects, and that users of the built environment encounter issues that cross the traditional professional boundaries between urban planners, traffic engineers, zoning authorities, architects, interior designers, industrial designers, etc. Historically, much of the built environment has taken the form of vernacular architecture, and this is still the case in large parts of the world. In the industrialized world, many buildings are produced by large scale development remote from its eventual users.
In landscape architecture, the built environment is identified as opposed to the natural environment, with the recognition that places like Central Park may have the look, feel, and nourishing quality of natural surroundings while being completely artificial and “built”, thus blurring the line between the two.
In urban planning, the phrase connotes the idea that a large percentage of the human environment is manmade, and these artificial surroundings are so extensive and cohesive that they function as organisms in the consumption of resources, disposal of wastes, and facilitation of productive enterprise within its bounds.Recently there has also been considerable dialogue and research into the impact of the built environment’s impact on population health (see www.activelivingbydesign.org).
See also
Sustainable vernacular architecture
Environmental Design Research Association
Art conservation and restoration
Art conservation and restoration
Conservation is the profession devoted to the preservation of cultural property for the future. Conservation activities include examination, documentation, treatment, and preventive care, supported by research and education. (Definition taken from the Core Documents of The American Institute for Conservation of Historic & Artistic Works – see external links.) Preventive conservation is an important element of museum policy and collections care. It is an essential responsibility of members of the museum profession to create and maintain a protective environment for the collections in their care, whether in store, on display, or in transit. A museum should carefully monitor the condition of collections to determine when an object or specimen may require conservation-restoration work and the services of a qualified conservator-restorer. The principal goal should be the stabilisation of the object or specimen. All conservation procedures should be documented and as reversible as possible, and all alterations should be clearly distinguishable from the original object or specimen. (Definitions taken from The ICOM Code of Professional Ethics – see external links.) Art conservation is not identical to art restoration. Restoration is a process that attempts to return the work of art to some previous state that restorer imagines to be “original”. This was commonly done in the past. However, in the late 20th century a separate concept of conservation was developed that is more concerned with preserving the work of art for the future, and less with making it look pristine. Restoration is controversial, since it often involves some irreversible change to the original material of the artwork with the goal of making it “look good.” The attitude of restorers in recent years is to make all the restoration they undertake reversible. The use of watercolor paints to inpaint damages on fresco is an example of a technique utilized to achieve almost complete reversibility.
Art conservation can involve the cleaning and stabilization of art work. Ideally, any process used is reversible, departures from that ideal not being undertaken lightly. Cleaning is not a reversible process and can sometimes be controversial due to fears that cleaning would damage a piece, or on the grounds that damage or residue forms part of the history of a given piece and should not be modified. Michaelangelo’s statue of David has undergone two cleanings to remove dirt that had accumulated on the statue’s surface.
In North America, five colleges/universities offer a graduate degree in art conservation:
- The University of Delaware (in association with Winterthur Museum)
- Buffalo State College, New York
- University of California, Los Angeles/Getty Program in Archaeological and Ethnographic Conservation
In addition, the University of Texas, Austin offers a Certificate of Advanced Study in the conservation of library and archival materials as part of its Master of Science in Information Studies program.
United States Conservation Associations
American Institute for Conservation [1]
Chicago Area Conservation Guild
Intermuseum Conservation Association [2]
Louisiana Art Conservation Alliance
Midwest Regional Conservation Guild [3]
New England Conservation Association
New York Regional Association for Conservation
Southeast Regional Conservation Association
Virginia Conservation Association
Western Association for Art Conservation
Western New York Conservation Guild
See also
External links
Icon, the Institute of Conservation (UK Professional body)
The American Institute for Conservation of Historic & Artistic Works
ICOM-CC – International Council of Museums Committee for Conservation
ICOM Code of Ethics
Observatory for the Protection of Cultural and Environmental Heritage in areas of crisis
Conservation OnLine
Objects Conservation – Provided by the Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History.
DOCAM – Documentation and Conservation of the Media Arts Heritage
IIC International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works
Architectural conservation
Architectural conservation
Architectural conservation describes the process through which the material, historical, and design integrity of mankind’s built heritage are prolonged through carefully planned interventions. The individual engaged in this pursuit is known as an architectural conservator. Decisions of when and how to engage in an intervention are critical to the ultimate conservation of the immovable object. Ultimately, the decision is value based: a combination of artistic, contextual, and informational values is normally considered. In some cases, a decision to not intervene may be the most appropriate choice.
Narrow definition
Architectural conservation deals with issues of prolonging the life and integrity of architectural materials, such as stone, brick, glass, metal, and wood. In this sense, the term refers to the “professional use of a combination of science, art, craft, and technology as a preservation tool” [1] and is allied with its parent field, art conservation.
Broad definition
In addition to the art/science definition described above, architectural conservation may refer to issues of identification, policy, regulation, and advocacy associated with the entirety of the older built environment. This broader scope recognizes that society must have mechanisms to identity and value historic cultural resources, create laws to protect these resources, and develop policies and management plans for interpretation, protection, and education.
Regional usage
In the United States, architectural conservation is used in the narrow sense and applies to the art/scientific treatment of cultural heritage and is considered to be a subset of historic preservation. In most other areas of the world, architectural conservation is used broadly for all aspects of the older built environment and is a subset of heritage conservation or cultural patrimony.[2]
In Asia where many of the fast developing and redeveloping cities are facing the issue of protecting its built heritage, architectural conservation becomes synonymous with urban conservation. A case in point is Singapore, where the government’s Urban Redevelopment Authority[3] directs urban planning and urban architectural conservation.
In China, heritage conservation is divided into archaeology and architectural conservation. Increasingly, heritage conservation, be they of underground or above ground nature, is employed as the means to the economic end of tourism development. Regional governments in China are realizing the economic potential (through domestic and international tourism) of having World Heritage Sites in their possession, and there has been a flurry to apply for listing of heritage sites on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
The threat of over-commercialization of heritage sites with World Heritage status in China to cater to the hordes of domestic and foreign tourists, as already happened to the historic town of Lijiang, has highlighted the importance of the field of cultural heritage management–how to maintain the site in a sustainable way after it has been proper conserved and opened to visitors. Hence, architectural Conservation in the Chinese context is increasingly more closely allied with heritage management and tourism studies.
Related journals
International Journal of Architectural Heritage
Journal of the American Institute for Conservation
See also
Historic Preservation
Art conservation and restoration
Materials science
Category:Heritage organizations
English Heritage
List of historic houses
National Register of Historic Places
National Trusts worldwide
World Heritage Sites
External links
Icon, the Institute of Conservation (UK Professional body)*
Yin Yu Tang: A Chinese Home Residing in Salem, Ma this authentic and fully rebuilt Chinese house of the Huang family, offers an in depth and interactive look into accurately restored Chinese architecture of the Qing dynasty.
Asian Academy for Heritage Management, a virtual institute under UNESCO Bangkok’s Office of the Regional Advisor for Culture in Asia and the Pacific.
UNESCO Asia-Pacific Heritage Awards for Culture Heritage Conservation.
Architectural Conservation Programme at The University of Hong Kong, Asia’s leading postgraduate-level professional programme in built-heritage conservation.
Cultural Heritage Management Programme in the School of Professional and Continuing Education at The University of Hong Kong, a postgraduate-level professional programme that focuses on the management of cultural heritage assets.
American Institute for Conservation, the professional body in the US representing practitioners of architectural conservation.
Parks Canada, the official Canadian government agency responsible for the conservation of Canada’s natural and cultural (tangible and intangible) heritage.
English Heritage, the official British government agency responsible for the conservation of English heritage.
Historic Scotland, the official British government agency responsible for the conservation of Scottish heritage.
Antiquities and Monuments Office, the official agency of the Hong Kong Government responsible for the conservation of local cultural heritage.
Heritage of Malaysia Trust, the quasi-government agency in Malaysia responsible for the conservation of local cultural heritage.
Architectural conservation
Architectural conservation
Architectural conservation describes the process through which the material, historical, and design integrity of mankind’s built heritage are prolonged through carefully planned interventions. The individual engaged in this pursuit is known as an architectural conservator. Decisions of when and how to engage in an intervention are critical to the ultimate conservation of the immovable object. Ultimately, the decision is value based: a combination of artistic, contextual, and informational values is normally considered. In some cases, a decision to not intervene may be the most appropriate choice.
Narrow definition
Architectural conservation deals with issues of prolonging the life and integrity of architectural materials, such as stone, brick, glass, metal, and wood. In this sense, the term refers to the “professional use of a combination of science, art, craft, and technology as a preservation tool” [1] and is allied with its parent field, art conservation.
Broad definition
In addition to the art/science definition described above, architectural conservation may refer to issues of identification, policy, regulation, and advocacy associated with the entirety of the older built environment. This broader scope recognizes that society must have mechanisms to identity and value historic cultural resources, create laws to protect these resources, and develop policies and management plans for interpretation, protection, and education.
Regional usage
In the United States, architectural conservation is used in the narrow sense and applies to the art/scientific treatment of cultural heritage and is considered to be a subset of historic preservation. In most other areas of the world, architectural conservation is used broadly for all aspects of the older built environment and is a subset of heritage conservation or cultural patrimony.[2]
In Asia where many of the fast developing and redeveloping cities are facing the issue of protecting its built heritage, architectural conservation becomes synonymous with urban conservation. A case in point is Singapore, where the government’s Urban Redevelopment Authority[3] directs urban planning and urban architectural conservation.
In China, heritage conservation is divided into archaeology and architectural conservation. Increasingly, heritage conservation, be they of underground or above ground nature, is employed as the means to the economic end of tourism development. Regional governments in China are realizing the economic potential (through domestic and international tourism) of having World Heritage Sites in their possession, and there has been a flurry to apply for listing of heritage sites on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
The threat of over-commercialization of heritage sites with World Heritage status in China to cater to the hordes of domestic and foreign tourists, as already happened to the historic town of Lijiang, has highlighted the importance of the field of cultural heritage management–how to maintain the site in a sustainable way after it has been proper conserved and opened to visitors. Hence, architectural Conservation in the Chinese context is increasingly more closely allied with heritage management and tourism studies.
Related journals
International Journal of Architectural Heritage
Journal of the American Institute for Conservation
See also
Historic Preservation
Art conservation and restoration
Materials science
Category:Heritage organizations
English Heritage
List of historic houses
National Register of Historic Places
National Trusts worldwide
World Heritage Sites
External links
Icon, the Institute of Conservation (UK Professional body)*
Yin Yu Tang: A Chinese Home Residing in Salem, Ma this authentic and fully rebuilt Chinese house of the Huang family, offers an in depth and interactive look into accurately restored Chinese architecture of the Qing dynasty.
Asian Academy for Heritage Management, a virtual institute under UNESCO Bangkok’s Office of the Regional Advisor for Culture in Asia and the Pacific.
UNESCO Asia-Pacific Heritage Awards for Culture Heritage Conservation.
Architectural Conservation Programme at The University of Hong Kong, Asia’s leading postgraduate-level professional programme in built-heritage conservation.
Cultural Heritage Management Programme in the School of Professional and Continuing Education at The University of Hong Kong, a postgraduate-level professional programme that focuses on the management of cultural heritage assets.
American Institute for Conservation, the professional body in the US representing practitioners of architectural conservation.
Parks Canada, the official Canadian government agency responsible for the conservation of Canada’s natural and cultural (tangible and intangible) heritage.
English Heritage, the official British government agency responsible for the conservation of English heritage.
Historic Scotland, the official British government agency responsible for the conservation of Scottish heritage.
Antiquities and Monuments Office, the official agency of the Hong Kong Government responsible for the conservation of local cultural heritage.
Heritage of Malaysia Trust, the quasi-government agency in Malaysia responsible for the conservation of local cultural heritage.
Historic preservation
Historic preservation
Historic preservation is the act of maintaining and repairing existing historic materials and the retention of a property’s form as it has evolved over time. When considering the United States Department of Interior’s interpretation: “Preservation calls for the existing form, materials, features, and detailing of a property to be retained and preserved. This may include preliminary measures to protect and stabilize it prior to undertaking other work–or protection and stabilization may be an end in itself, for example, in an archaeological project”.[1] Historic Preservation is a tool to save older buildings.
History
In England, Antiquarian interests were a familiar gentleman’s pursuit since the mid 17th century, developing in tandem with the rise in scientific curiosity. Fellows of the Royal Society were often also Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries[citation needed]. The UK’s Ancient Monuments Act of 1913 officially preserved certain decayed and obsolete structures of intrinsic historical and associative interest, just as Modernism was lending moral authority to destruction of the built heritage in the name of progress.[citation needed] The UK’s National Trust began with the preservation of historic houses and has steadily increased its scope. In the UK’s subsequent Town and Planning Act (1944), and the Town and Country Planning Act 1990, steps were taken toward historic preservation on an unprecedented scale.[citation needed] Concern about the demolition of historic buildings arose in institutions such as the pressure group The Society for the Preservation of Historic Buildings, which appealed against demolition and neglect on a case by case basis.[2]
In The United States one of the first major Historic Preservation undertakings was that of George Washington’s Mount Vernon in 1858.[3] Founded in 1889, the Richmond, Virginia-based Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities was the United States’ first statewide historic preservation group.[citation needed] The US National Trust for Historic Preservation, another privately funded non-profit organization, began in 1949 with a handful of privileged structures and has developed goals that provide “leadership, education, advocacy, and resources to save America’s diverse historic places and revitalize our communities” according to the Trust’s mission statement. In 1951 the Trust assumed responsibility for its first museum property, Woodlawn Plantation in northern Virginia. Twenty-eight sites in all have subsequently become part of the National Trust, representing the cultural diversity of American history. In New York City, the destruction of Pennsylvania Station in 1964 shocked many in that city into supporting preservation. On an international level, the New York-based World Monuments Fund was founded in 1965 to preserve historic sites all over the world.
Under the direction of James Marston Fitch, the first advanced-degree historic preservation program began at Columbia University in 1964.[4] It became the model on which most other graduate historic preservation programs were created.[5] Many other programs were to follow before 1980: M.A. in Preservation Planning from Cornell (1975); M.S. in Historic Preservation from the University of Vermont (1975); M.S. in Historic Preservation Studies from Boston University (1976); and M.S. in Historic Preservation from Eastern Michigan University (1979).
The first undergraduate programs (B.A.) appeared in 1977 from Goucher College and Roger Williams College.[6]
Historic districts
A Historic district in the United States is a group of buildings, properties or sites that have been designated by one of several entities on different levels as historically or architecturally significant. Buildings, structures, objects and sites within a historic district are normally divided into two categories, contributing and non-contributing. Districts greatly vary in size, some having hundreds of structures while others have just a few.
The U.S. federal government designates historic districts through the U.S. Department of Interior, under the auspices of the National Park Service. Federally designated historic districts are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[7]
A similar concept exists in the United Kingdom: a Conservation area is designated in accordance with the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 in order to protect a zone in which there are buildings of architectural or cultural heritage interest.
Preserving historic landscapes
The United States led the world in the creation of National Parks, areas of unspoiled natural wilderness, where the intrusion of civilization are intentionally minimal.[citation needed]
In addition to preserving the natural heritage, the U.S. Park Service also maintains the National Register of Historic Places to recognize significant buildings and places, including historic parks, battlefields, National Historic Landmarks, memorials and monuments.
Landscapes and sites of outstanding universal value can be designated as World Heritage Sites. A requirement of such designation is that the designating nation has appropriate legislation in place to preserve them.
Careers
Although volunteers have traditionally engaged in historic preservation activities, since the 1960s, the field has seen an increased level of professionalization. Today, there are many career options in historic preservation. Institutes of secondary education (universities, colleges, etc.) in the United States offer both certificate and degree (A.A.S, B.A., B.F.A., B.S., M.A., M.F.A., M.S., and PhD) programs in historic preservation.[9] Some students—at schools with such programs available—choose to enroll in “joint degree” programs, earning a degree in historic preservation along with one in another, related subject, often an MArch, MUP or JD degree.
Possible career fields include:
Historic preservation planner (local/county/state level)
State Historic Preservation Officer
Preservation Architect
Preservation Engineer
Resource interpreters
Public historian
Historic site administrator
Consultant for Section 106 reviews in accordance with the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966
Director or staff of a local, regional, statewide, or national preservation non-profit such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation
Traditional trades practitioner.
See also
Architectural conservation
Adaptive reuse
Category:Demolished buildings and structures
Category:Heritage organizations
List of historic houses
National Register of Historic Places
National Trusts worldwide
World Heritage Sites
External links
The Annapolis Collection Story from Baltilore Sun
National Trust For Historic Preservation
Advisory Council on Historic Preservation
Standards and Guidelines for the Conservation of Historic Places in Canada
PreserveNet: A Cornell-affiliated web page designed to provide preservationists with a comprehensive database of regularly updated internet resources and current professional opportunities.
PreservationDirectory.com: A resource for historic preservation, building restoration and cultural resource management in the US and Canada
The Association for Preservation Technology International (APT): is a cross-disciplinary, membership organization dedicated to promoting the best technology for conserving historic structures and their settings.
Preservation Trades Network (PTN): membership community organization focused on traditional trades practitioners and allied professionals in the international preservation industry
Preservation News Vol. 1 (1961) – Vol. 35 no. 1 (Feb/March 1995). Monthly publication of the Preservation Press of the National Trust for Historic Preservation of the United States.
National Council for Preservation Education: (NCPE) Guide to over fifty academic programs in historic preservation and allied fields in the United States and other information
WWW-VL US Historic Preservation Virtual Library of resources for preservation, including green LEED examples
Historic preservation
Historic preservation
Historic preservation is the act of maintaining and repairing existing historic materials and the retention of a property’s form as it has evolved over time. When considering the United States Department of Interior’s interpretation: “Preservation calls for the existing form, materials, features, and detailing of a property to be retained and preserved. This may include preliminary measures to protect and stabilize it prior to undertaking other work–or protection and stabilization may be an end in itself, for example, in an archaeological project”.[1] Historic Preservation is a tool to save older buildings.
History
In England, Antiquarian interests were a familiar gentleman’s pursuit since the mid 17th century, developing in tandem with the rise in scientific curiosity. Fellows of the Royal Society were often also Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries[citation needed]. The UK’s Ancient Monuments Act of 1913 officially preserved certain decayed and obsolete structures of intrinsic historical and associative interest, just as Modernism was lending moral authority to destruction of the built heritage in the name of progress.[citation needed] The UK’s National Trust began with the preservation of historic houses and has steadily increased its scope. In the UK’s subsequent Town and Planning Act (1944), and the Town and Country Planning Act 1990, steps were taken toward historic preservation on an unprecedented scale.[citation needed] Concern about the demolition of historic buildings arose in institutions such as the pressure group The Society for the Preservation of Historic Buildings, which appealed against demolition and neglect on a case by case basis.[2]
In The United States one of the first major Historic Preservation undertakings was that of George Washington’s Mount Vernon in 1858.[3] Founded in 1889, the Richmond, Virginia-based Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities was the United States’ first statewide historic preservation group.[citation needed] The US National Trust for Historic Preservation, another privately funded non-profit organization, began in 1949 with a handful of privileged structures and has developed goals that provide “leadership, education, advocacy, and resources to save America’s diverse historic places and revitalize our communities” according to the Trust’s mission statement. In 1951 the Trust assumed responsibility for its first museum property, Woodlawn Plantation in northern Virginia. Twenty-eight sites in all have subsequently become part of the National Trust, representing the cultural diversity of American history. In New York City, the destruction of Pennsylvania Station in 1964 shocked many in that city into supporting preservation. On an international level, the New York-based World Monuments Fund was founded in 1965 to preserve historic sites all over the world.
Under the direction of James Marston Fitch, the first advanced-degree historic preservation program began at Columbia University in 1964.[4] It became the model on which most other graduate historic preservation programs were created.[5] Many other programs were to follow before 1980: M.A. in Preservation Planning from Cornell (1975); M.S. in Historic Preservation from the University of Vermont (1975); M.S. in Historic Preservation Studies from Boston University (1976); and M.S. in Historic Preservation from Eastern Michigan University (1979).
The first undergraduate programs (B.A.) appeared in 1977 from Goucher College and Roger Williams College.[6]
Historic districts
A Historic district in the United States is a group of buildings, properties or sites that have been designated by one of several entities on different levels as historically or architecturally significant. Buildings, structures, objects and sites within a historic district are normally divided into two categories, contributing and non-contributing. Districts greatly vary in size, some having hundreds of structures while others have just a few.
The U.S. federal government designates historic districts through the U.S. Department of Interior, under the auspices of the National Park Service. Federally designated historic districts are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[7]
A similar concept exists in the United Kingdom: a Conservation area is designated in accordance with the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 in order to protect a zone in which there are buildings of architectural or cultural heritage interest.
Preserving historic landscapes
The United States led the world in the creation of National Parks, areas of unspoiled natural wilderness, where the intrusion of civilization are intentionally minimal.[citation needed]
In addition to preserving the natural heritage, the U.S. Park Service also maintains the National Register of Historic Places to recognize significant buildings and places, including historic parks, battlefields, National Historic Landmarks, memorials and monuments.
Landscapes and sites of outstanding universal value can be designated as World Heritage Sites. A requirement of such designation is that the designating nation has appropriate legislation in place to preserve them.
Careers
Although volunteers have traditionally engaged in historic preservation activities, since the 1960s, the field has seen an increased level of professionalization. Today, there are many career options in historic preservation. Institutes of secondary education (universities, colleges, etc.) in the United States offer both certificate and degree (A.A.S, B.A., B.F.A., B.S., M.A., M.F.A., M.S., and PhD) programs in historic preservation.[9] Some students—at schools with such programs available—choose to enroll in “joint degree” programs, earning a degree in historic preservation along with one in another, related subject, often an MArch, MUP or JD degree.
Possible career fields include:
Historic preservation planner (local/county/state level)
State Historic Preservation Officer
Preservation Architect
Preservation Engineer
Resource interpreters
Public historian
Historic site administrator
Consultant for Section 106 reviews in accordance with the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966
Director or staff of a local, regional, statewide, or national preservation non-profit such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation
Traditional trades practitioner.
See also
Architectural conservation
Adaptive reuse
Category:Demolished buildings and structures
Category:Heritage organizations
List of historic houses
National Register of Historic Places
National Trusts worldwide
World Heritage Sites
External links
The Annapolis Collection Story from Baltilore Sun
National Trust For Historic Preservation
Advisory Council on Historic Preservation
Standards and Guidelines for the Conservation of Historic Places in Canada
PreserveNet: A Cornell-affiliated web page designed to provide preservationists with a comprehensive database of regularly updated internet resources and current professional opportunities.
PreservationDirectory.com: A resource for historic preservation, building restoration and cultural resource management in the US and Canada
The Association for Preservation Technology International (APT): is a cross-disciplinary, membership organization dedicated to promoting the best technology for conserving historic structures and their settings.
Preservation Trades Network (PTN): membership community organization focused on traditional trades practitioners and allied professionals in the international preservation industry
Preservation News Vol. 1 (1961) – Vol. 35 no. 1 (Feb/March 1995). Monthly publication of the Preservation Press of the National Trust for Historic Preservation of the United States.
National Council for Preservation Education: (NCPE) Guide to over fifty academic programs in historic preservation and allied fields in the United States and other information
WWW-VL US Historic Preservation Virtual Library of resources for preservation, including green LEED examples
National Register of Historic Places
National Register of Historic Places
The National Register of Historic Places is the United States government’s official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects worthy of preservation. The passing of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) in 1966 established the National Register and the process for adding properties to it. Of the more than one million properties on the National Register, 80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing members within historic districts. Each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or through individual listings.
For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service (NPS), an agency within the United States Department of the Interior. Its goals are to help property owners and groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, they do provide some financial incentive to listed property owners. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). The application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics in the fields of history and preservation, as well as the public, and politicians.
Occasionally historic sites outside the country proper but associated with the United States (such as the American Embassy in Tangiers) are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts and Multiple Property Submissions (MPS). The Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties: building, structure, site, object, and districts. Historic districts consist of contributing and non-contributing property types. Some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they come under the aegis of the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks (NHL), National Historic Sites (NHS), National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials and some National Monuments.[2]
History
On October 15, 1966 the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices (SHPO).[4] Initially the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Register’s creation, as well as any other historic sites within the National Park system.[5] The passage of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad based historic preservation policy.[6][4] The 1966 act required those agencies to work in conjunction with the SHPO and an independent federal agency, the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP), to confront adverse effects of federal activities on historic preservation.[7]
To encompass the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service under the U.S. Department of Interior, under director George B. Hartzog, Jr., established an administrative division called the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation (OAHP).[7][8] Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law. Ernest Connally was the Office’s first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register.[9] The division oversaw several existing programs, including the Historic Sites Survey and the Historic American Buildings Survey, as well as the new NRHP and Historic Preservation Fund.[7]
The first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian.[5] In the Register’s earliest years, the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed and underfunded.[8] Indeed, money was tight, but funds were still being supplied for the Historic Preservation Fund to provide matching grants-in-aid to listed property owners, first for house museums and institutional buildings but later for commercial structures as well.[7]
A few years later in 1973, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U.S. National Parks system and the National Register were formally categorized into two “Assistant Directorates.” Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation.[9] From 1978 until 1981 the lead agency for the NRHP was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service (HCRS) within the United States Department of Interior.[10]
In February 1983 the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs. Jerry L. Rogers was picked to lead this newly merged associate directorate. He was described as a skilled administrator who was sensitive to the need for the NPS to work with SHPOs, academia and local governments.[9]
Though not initially spelled out in the 1966 act, the role of the SHPO eventually became integral to the process to list properties on the National Register. The 1980 amendments to the 1966 law further laid out the responsibilities of SHPO concerning the federal National Register.[10] Several 1992 amendments to the NHPA added a classification to the National Register known as Traditional Cultural Properties, properties associated with Native American or Hawaiian groups.[6]
The National Register of Historic Places has grown considerably from its beginnings as legislation in 1966. In 1986 citizens and groups nominated 3,623 separate properties, sites, and districts for inclusion on the NRHP, a total of 75,000 separate properties.[10] Of the more than one million properties on the National Register, 80,000 are listed individually. Others are listed as contributing members within historic districts.[7][11]
Property owner incentives
Properties are not protected in any strict sense by the Federal listing. States and local zoning bodies may or may not choose to protect listed Historic Places.[13] Indirect protection is possible, through state and local regulations on development of NRHP properties, and through tax incentives.
Until 1976 tax incentives were virtually non-existent for buildings on the National Register. Before 1976 the federal tax code favored new construction over the reuse of existing, sometimes historical, structures.[7] After 1976 the tax code was altered to provide tax incentives which promote preservation of income-producing historic properties. The National Park Service had the responsibility to ensure that only rehabilitations that preserved the historic character of a building would qualify for the federal tax incentives. Properties and sites listed on the Register, as well as those considered contributing properties to a local historic district “approved by the Park Service”, became eligible for the federal tax benefits.[7]
Owners of properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places can be eligible for a 20% investment tax credit for the “certified rehabilitation of income-producing certified historic structures.” The rehabilitation can be as commercial, industrial or residential, for rentals.[14]
The tax incentives program is operated by the Federal Historic Preservation Tax Incentives program, which is jointly managed by the National Park Service, SHPO, and the Internal Revenue Service.[15] Aside from the 20% tax credit, the tax incentive program offers a 10% tax credit for rehabilitation to owners of non-historic, non-residential buildings constructed before 1936.[16]
Some property owners may qualify for grants as well, for instance, the Save America’s Treasures grants that apply specifically to NRHP properties which were entered in the Register at a national level of significance or designated as National Historic Landmarks.[17]
The NHPA made no distinction between properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places and those designated as National Historic Landmarks concerning qualification for tax incentives or grants. This was deliberate on the part of the 1966 act’s authors. Their experience had shown that categories of significance caused the lowest category to become expendable.[5] Essentially, this reduced the Landmarks to little more than the “honor roll” of the National Register of Historic Places.[5]
Nomination process
Any individual can prepare a National Register nomination, although historians and historic preservation consultants are often employed for this work. The nomination contains basic information on the type of significance embodied in the building, district, or site.[19] The State Historic Preservation Office receives National Register nominations and supplies feedback to the individual or group preparing the nomination, which is done via a standard nomination form. The SHPO sends each nomination to the state’s historic preservation advisory board, which then recommends whether the State Historic Preservation Officer should forward it to the Keeper of the Register. Only the State Historic Preservation Officer can officially nominate a property for inclusion in the National Register. The nomination is sent to the National Park Service which then approves or denies the nomination. If approved, it is officially entered by the Keeper of the Register into the National Register of Historic Places.[19] Owners are also informed of the nomination during the review by the SHPO. If an owner objects to a nomination, or in the case of a historic district, a majority of owners, then the property cannot be listed in the National Register of Historic Places.[19]
Criteria
For a property to be listed it must meet at least one of the four NRHP key criteria.[21] Information on architectural styles, association with various aspects of social history and commerce, and ownership are all integral parts of the nomination. Each nomination generally provides a narrative section which describes the site or building in detail and justifies why it is historically significant. The NRHP criteria fall into four categories. To meet the “Event” category, criterion A, the property must make a contribution to the broad patterns of American history. Criterion B, “Person,” is associated with significant people in the American past. The third criterion, C, “Design/Construction,” is affiliated with the distinctive characteristics of the building through its construction and architecture, including having high artistic value or being the work of a master. The final criterion, D, “Information potential,” is satisfied if the property has yielded or may be likely to yield information important to prehistory or history.[19] The criteria are applied differently for different types of properties, for instance, maritime properties have different application guidelines than buildings.[21]
Exclusions
There are also specific instances where properties usually do not merit listing on the National Register. As a general rule, cemeteries, birthplaces, graves of historical figures, properties owned by religious institutions or used for religious purposes, moved structures, reconstructed historic buildings, commemorative properties, and properties which have achieved significance in the last 50 years are not qualified for listing on the Register.[19] There are, however, exceptions to every category on that list. There are mitigating circumstances which allow properties classified in one of those groups to be included.[19]
Listed properties
A listing on the National Register of Historic Places is governmental acknowledgment of a historic district, site, building or property. However, the Register is mostly “an honorary status with some federal financial incentives.”[22] The National Register of Historic Places automatically includes all National Historic Landmarks as well as all historic areas administered by the National Park Service.[4] Besides Landmarks these include: National Historic Sites (NHS), National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, and some National Monuments. Occasionally historic sites outside the country’s traditional borders but associated with the United States, such as the American Embassy in Tangiers, are also listed.[23]
Listing in the National Register does not restrict private property owners from the use of their property.[14] Some states and municipalities, however, may have laws that become effective when a property is listed on the National Register. If federal money or a federal permitting process is involved, Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 is invoked. Section 106 requires the federal agency involved to assess the impact of its actions on historic resources.[4] Statutorily, the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation has the most significant role under Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act. The section requires that the head of any federal agency with direct or indirect jurisdiction over a project which may affect a property listed on the National Register of Historic Places, must first report to the Advisory Council. The head of said agency is required to “take into account the effect of the undertaking” on the National Register property, as well as to afford the ACHP a reasonable opportunity to comment.[24]
While Section 106 does not explicitly mandate that any federal agency head listen to the advice of the ACHP, practically their advice carries weight, especially given the statutory obligations laid out in the NHPA that require federal agencies to “take into account the effect of the undertaking.”[24][4]
In cases where the ACHP determines federal action will have an “adverse effect” on historic properties, mitigation is sought. Typically, a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) is created by which the involved parties agree to a particular plan. Many states have laws similar to Section 106.[25] In contrast to conditions relating to a federally Registered Historic District, often municipal ordinances governing local historic district restrict certain kinds of changes to properties. Thus they may protect the property more than a National Register listing does.[26]
The Department of Transportation Act, passed on October 15, 1966, the same day as the National Historic Preservation Act, included provisions that addressed historic preservation. The language of the DOT Act is much broader than Section 106 NHPA in that it refers to properties beyond those listed on the Register.[24]
The broader language has allowed more properties and parklands to enjoy status as protected areas under this legislation, a policy laid out early on in its history. The United States Supreme Court ruled in the 1971 case Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v. Volpe that parklands could have the same protected status as “historic sites.”[24]
Multiple Property Submission
A Multiple Property Submission (MPS) is a thematic group listing in the National Register of Historic Places which consists of related properties. The properties are of a common theme and can be submitted as a group. The multiple property submissions outlines basic criteria for National Register inclusion for properties of a certain type.
The process begins with the Multiple Property Documentation Form, which acts as a cover document rather than the nomination to the NRHP. The purpose of the documentation form is to establish the basis of eligibility for related properties. The information outlined in the Multiple Property Documentation Form can be used to nominate and register related historic properties simultaneously or, to establish criteria for properties which may be nominated in the future. Thus, additions to an MPS can occur over a period of years. The actual nomination of individual properties in an MPS is done in the same manner other nominations are made. The name of the “thematic group” denotes the historical framework of the properties. It is considered the “multiple property listing.” Once an individual or group of properties are nominated and listed on the NRHP, the Multiple Property Documentation From, combined with the individual National Register of Historic Places Nomination Forms, constitute a Multiple Property Submission.[27] Examples of MPS include the Lee County Multiple Property Submission, the Warehouses in Omaha, and the Illinois Carnegie Libraries. Before the term Multiple Property Submission was introduced, in 1984, such listings were known as “Thematic Resources” (TR) or “Multiple Resource Areas” (MRA).[28]
Types of properties
Listed properties generally fall into one of five categories, though there are special considerations for other types of properties which do not fit into these five broad categories or fit into more specialized subcategories. The five general categories for NRHP properties are: building, structure, object, site, and district.[21] In addition, historic districts consist of contributing and non-contributing properties.
Buildings, as defined by the National Register, are distinguished in the traditional sense. Examples include a house, barn, hotel, church, or similar construction. They are created primarily to shelter human activity. The term building, as in outbuilding, can be used to refer to historically and functionally related units, such as a courthouse and a jail or a barn and a house.[21]
Structures differ from buildings, in that they are functional constructions meant to be used for purposes other than sheltering human activity. Examples include, an aircraft, a grain elevator, a gazebo and a bridge.
Objects are usually artistic in nature, or small in scale when compared to structures and buildings. Though objects may be movable they are generally associated with a specific setting or environment. Examples of objects include, monuments, sculptures and fountains.
Sites are the location of significant events which can be prehistoric or historic in nature and represent activities, buildings (standing, ruined or vanished). With sites it is the location itself which is of historical interest. It possesses cultural or archaeological value regardless of the value of any structures which currently exist on the location. Examples of sites include shipwrecks, battlefields, campsites, natural features and rock shelters.[21]
Historic districts possess a concentration, linkage or continuity of the other four types of properties. Objects, structures, buildings, and sites within a historic district are united historically or aesthetically, either by choice or by the nature of their development.[21]
There are several other different types of historic preservation associated with the properties on the National Register of Historic Places that do not fall into the categories with simple buildings and historic districts. Through the National Park Service, the National Register of Historic Places publishes a series of bulletins designed to aid in evaluating and applying the criteria for evaluation against different types of properties.[21] Though the criteria are always the same, the way they are applied can differ slightly, depending upon the type of property involved. The National Register bulletins cover application of the criteria for aids to navigation, historic battlefields, archaeological sites, aviation properties, cemeteries and burial places, historic designed landscapes, mining sites, post offices, properties associated with significant persons, properties achieving significance within the last 50 years, rural historic landscapes, traditional cultural properties, and vessels and shipwrecks.[21]
Criticism
In 1983 Joseph A. Tainter and G. John Lucas published “Epistemology of the Significance Concept,” in American Antiquity. The paper dealt with the notion of significance and the “dilemma” it presented concerning which properties were included on the NRHP and which ones were not. The main idea underlying Lucas’ and Tainter’s paper was the quest for a “deeper understanding” of the notion of significance as it pertained to historic preservation efforts in the United States. Through that deeper understanding they hoped to “suggest possible courses of action for dealing with some aspects of the significance dilemma.”[30] The two criticized the idea of significance as it was applied by the NRHP, stating that three of the criteria for inclusion basically defined significance as “significant.” The fourth criterion, they stated, defined the concept as “important.”[30] Tainter and Lucas’ view drew considerable response from the larger academic community.[31][32]
Stephen Mikesell argued a similar position in 1986 in his paper, published in The Public Historian. Mikesell called the NRHP criteria “so broad as to be almost useless when evaluating specific properties.”[29] A 1987 paper by Jerry L. Rogers in The Public Historian criticized the lack of a “human touch” in the way the program was administered by the National Park Service. The author contended the process was highly decentralized. Rogers further noted that federal historic preservation officers did not receive much training.[33]
The shortcomings of the NHPA are obvious when historic properties are destroyed, as when the Jobbers Canyon Historic District in downtown Omaha, Nebraska was demolished in 1987 to make way for a suburban-style corporate campus.[34]
See also
List of National Register of Historic Places entries
List of National Historic Landmarks by state
National Heritage Area
National Historical Park
List of heritage registers
Contributing property
Cultural landscape
Historic preservation
External links
National Register of Historic Places
National Historic Landmarks Program
Travel itineraries
Weekly updates
Nomination forms
Advisory Council on Historic Preservation
Working with Section 106
An Overview of Federal Historic Preservation Law, 1966-1996
National Register of Historic Places.com – unofficial website
National Register of Historic Places in Google Earth – (unofficial)
National Historic Landmark
National Historic Landmark
A National Historic Landmark (NHL) is a building, district, site, structure, or object, almost always within the United States, officially recognized by the United States government for its historical significance. Landmarks are designated by the United States Secretary of the Interior because they are:
- Sites where events of national historical significance occurred;
- Places where prominent Americans lived or worked;
- Icons of ideals that shaped the nation;
- Outstanding examples of design or construction;
- Places characterizing a way of life; or
Archeological sites able to yield information.
A National Historic Landmark District (NHLD) is a historic district that is recognized as a NHL. It may include contributing structures or other elements, and non-contributing ones.
On October 9, 1960, 92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary Fred Andrew Seaton. The first of these was a political nomination, Sergeant Floyd Grave and Monument in Sioux City, Iowa. It was officially designated on June 30 of that year, but for various reasons the public announcement of the first several NHLs was delayed.
More than half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned. There are currently fewer than 2500 NHLs. The National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, also works to preserve, protect and promote National Historic Landmarks.
If not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs.
See also
List of National Historic Landmarks by state
List of National Register of Historic Places entries
National Natural Landmark
Listed building, a similar designation in the UK
American Water Landmark
External links
National Historic Landmarks Program Official website
A History of the NHL Program
List of NHLs
National Natural Landmark
National Natural Landmark
The National Natural Landmark (NNL) program recognizes and encourages the conservation of outstanding examples of the United States‘ natural history. It is the only natural areas program of national scope that identifies and recognizes the best examples of biological and geological features in both public and private ownership. The program was established on May 18, 1962 by United States Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall.
The program aims to encourage and support voluntary preservation of sites that illustrate the geological and ecological history of the United States, and to strengthen the public’s appreciation of the country’s natural heritage. As of June 2005, 587 sites have been added to the National Registry of National Landmarks. The registry includes nationally significant geological and ecological features in 48 states, American Samoa, Guam, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands.
The National Park Service administers the NNL Program, and if requested, assists NNL owners and managers with the conservation of these important sites. Land acquisition by the federal government is not a goal of this program; NNLs are nationally significant sites owned by a variety of land stewards, and participation in the program is voluntary.
The legislative authority for the Natural Landmarks Program stems from the Historic Sites Act of August 21, 1935 (49 Stat. 666, 16 U.S.C. 641); the program is governed by federal regulations. [1] The Natural Landmark program does not have the protection features of Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966. Thus, designation of a National Natural Landmark presently constitutes only an agreement with the owner to preserve, insofar as possible, the significant natural values of the site or area. Administration and preservation of
Natural Landmarks is solely the owner’s responsibility. Either party may terminate the agreement after they notify the other.
Designation
The NNL designation is made by the Secretary of the Interior after in-depth scientific study of a potential site. All new designations must have owner concurrence. The selection process is rigorous: to be considered for NNL status, a site must be one of the best examples of a natural region’s characteristic biotic or geologic features. Since establishment of the NNL program, a multi-step process has been used to designate a site for NNL status. Since 1970, the following steps have constituted the process.
A natural area inventory of a natural region is completed to identify the most promising sites.
After landowners are notified that the site is being considered for NNL status, a detailed onsite evaluation is conducted by scientists other than those who conducted the inventory.
The evaluation report is peer reviewed by other experts to assure its soundness.
The report is reviewed further by National Park Service staff.
The site is reviewed by the Secretary of the Interior’s National Park Advisory Board to determine that the site qualifies as an NNL.
The findings are provided to the Secretary of the Interior who approves or declines.
Landowners are notified a third time informing them that the site has been designated an NNL
Prospective sites for NNL designation are terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems; geological features, exposures, and landforms that record active geological processes or portions of earth history; and fossil evidence of biological evolution. Each major natural history “theme” can be further subdivided into various sub-themes. For example, sub-themes suggested in 1972 for the overall theme “Lakes and ponds” included large deep lakes, large shallow lakes, lakes of complex shape, crater lakes, kettle lake and potholes, oxbow lakes, dune lakes, sphagnum-bog lakes, lakes fed by thermal streams, tundra lakes and ponds, swamps and marshy areas, sinkhole lakes, unusually productive lakes, and lakes of high productivity and high clarity.
Ownership
The NNL program does not require designated properties to be owned by public entities. Lands under almost all forms of ownership or administration have been designated–federal, state, local, municipal and private. Federal lands with NNLs include those administered by the National Park Service, National Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, Bureau of Reclamation, Fish and Wildlife Service, Air Force, Marine Corps, Army Corps of Engineers, Navy, and others.
Some occur on lands held by Native Americans or tribes. NNLs occur on state lands with various existing management designations; forest, park, game refuge, recreation area, and preserve. Private lands with NNLs include those owned by universities, museums, scientific societies, conservation organizations, land trusts, commercial interests, and private individuals. Approximately 52% of NNLs are administered by public agencies, more than 30% are entirely privately owned, and the remaining 18% are owned or administered by a mixture of public agencies and private owners.
Access
Participation in the NNL Program does not carry any requirements regarding public access. The NNL registry does include many sites of national significance that are open for public tours. Some are open, others are not. Since many NNLs are located on federal and state property, permission to visit is often unnecessary. Some private property may be open to public visitation or just require permission from the site manager. On the other hand, some NNL private landowners do not desire any visitors whatsoever and might even prosecute trespassers. The reasons for this viewpoint vary: potential property damage or liability, fragile or dangerous resources, and desire for no publicity or solitude.
Property status
NNL designation is an agreement between the property owner and the federal government. NNL designation does not change ownership of the property nor induce any encumbrances on the property. NNL status does not transfer with changes in ownership.
Participation in the NNL program involves a voluntary commitment on the part of the landowner(s) to retain the integrity of their NNL property as it was when designated. If “major” habitat or landscape destruction is planned, participation in the NNL program by a landowner would be ingenuous and meaningless.
The federal action of designation imposes no new land use restrictions that were not in effect before the designation. It is conceivable that state or local governments on their own volition could initiate regulations or zoning that might apply to an NNL. However, as of 2005 no examples of such a situation have been identified. Some states require planners to ascertain the location of NNLs.
List of National Natural Landmarks in Illinois:
Allerton Natural Area
Bell Smith Springs
Busse Forest Nature Preserve
Forest of the Wabash
Fults Hill Prairie Nature Preserve
Funks Grove
Giant City
Heron Pond / Little Black Slough
Horseshoe Lake
Illinois Beach State Park
LaRue-Pine Ecological Area
Little Grand Canyon
Lower Cache River Swamp
Lusk Creek Canyon
Markham Prairie
Mississippi Palisades
Volo Bog Nature Preserve
Wauconda Bog Nature Preserve
Cook County Forest Preserves
Cook County Forest Preserves
The Cook County Forest Preserves are a network of open spaces, containing forest, prairie, wetland, streams, and lakes, that are set aside as natural areas. Cook County contains Chicago, Illinois, and is the center of a densely-populated urban metropolitan area in northeastern Illinois. The Forest Preserves encompass approximately 68,000 acres (275 km²) of open space within the urban surroundings of Chicago. Both the Brookfield Zoo (managed by the Chicago Zoological Society) and the Chicago Botanic Gardens (managed by the Chicago Horticultural Society) are located in the forest preserves.
The Forest Preserves have a different purpose than parks, and they generally do not contain organized recreational facilities such as tennis courts or softball diamonds. They do contain hiking, bicycling, and riding trails, as well as facilities for nature and group activities, and they are heavily used for picnicking. They are administered by the Forest Preserve District of Cook County, a special taxation district that crosses municipal boundaries.
The Ned Brown Forest Preserve contains Busse Woods, a National Natural Landmark.
External links
Illinois State Capitol
Illinois State Capitol
The Illinois State Capitol, located in Springfield, Illinois, is the capitol and seat of government of the U.S. state of Illinois. The current building is the sixth capitol to serve the state since its entry into the United States in 1818. The current capitol is in the architectural style of the French Renaissance. The capitol was designed by Cochrane and Garnsey, an architecture and design firm based in Chicago, Illinois. Ground was first broken for the new capitol on March 11, 1868, and it was completed twenty years later for a total cost of $4,500,000.
Description
With a total ground height of 361 feet (110 meters), the Illinois capitol is the tallest non-skyscraper capitol, even exceeding the height of the United States Capitol in Washington, DC. The only state capitols taller than it are the non-classical designs found in Louisiana and Nebraska, which opted for more modern buildings for their current capitols. The dome itself is 92.5 feet (28.2 meters) wide, and is supported by solid bedrock, 25.5 feet (7.77 meters) below the surface. The building itself is shaped like a Latin cross aligned to the major points of the compass, and measures 379 feet (116 meters) from the north end to the south end, and 268 feet (81.7 meters) from the east end to the west end. The capitol occupies a nine acre plot of land which forms the capitol grounds.
Interestingly enough, when the capital was created several empty shafts were included for the future installation of elevators. Installation of the elevators began in 1887. The original models were water operated and often the subject of ridicule in local papers as they were deemed inadequate for a building with the stature and prominence of the State Capitol. It is unknown when the first electric elevators were installed, but the first mention of them occurs in 1939, when the legislature appropriated $30,000 for repair of the electric elevators.
The capitol dome is plated in zinc to provide a silver facade which does not weather (a feature popular in Europe at the time of its construction). The interior of the dome features a Plaster Frieze, painted to resemble bronze, which illustrates points in Illinois history, and stained glass windows, including a stained glass replica of the state flag at the pinnacle of the dome.[1] The flag featured in the top of the dome is the flag flown by Illinois prior to the Civil War. It differs from the modern flag in that the phrase “State Sovereignty” is above the phrase “National Union”. After the Civil War the legislature voted to reverse these phrases as they felt that National Union was the more important of these two concepts.
History of the Capitol Location
The current Capitol of Illinois is the sixth such capitol in the history of the state. The first was located in Kaskaskia, Illinois, a city on the Mississippi River founded by the French in 1709.
Kaskaskia had served as the territorial capital of Illinois since 1809, so it was deemed an appropriate location for the capital of the fledgling state. The first capitol building was rented by the state and was by all accounts a simple two-story building which the state leased for $4.00 a day.
Wishing to site the capital in the state’s interior, the first General Assembly petitioned Congress for a grant of suitable land. Congress offered, and the state accepted, a land parcel on the Kaskaskia River around eighty miles northeast of Kaskaskia. This location, which would be named Vandalia, Illinois, was selected in part with the hopes of encouraging settlers to move to other parts of the state which were still uninhabited. The state lets its lease on the first capital in Kaskaskia expire, and the building burned in 1824.
In 1820, with the completion of the new or ‘Second’ capitol, Vandalia, Illinois became the capital of the state. (In 1881 this decision to move the capital became wise in hindsight, as Kaskaskia was destroyed by a sudden change in the course of the Mississippi River.) A third capitol was soon erected for a cost of $15,000. Soon after its erection, calls began to echo around the state to move the capitol to a location nearer the center of the state. A bill introduced in 1833 calling for a statewide vote to move the capital to determine a new location from a list of central choices including Alton, Jacksonville, Peoria, Springfield, Vandalia, and the state’s actual geographic center. While Alton emerged as the victor the legislature determined the slim margin too small to be conclusive and the vote was aborted. In 1836, a young lawyer named Abraham Lincoln began to push the notion of moving the capitol to Springfield, Illinois along with other colleagues of his in the legal profession. That summer the third capitol was torn down and replaced with the fourth capitol (built at a cost of $16,000) in an effort to keep the capitol in Vandalia.
Although the new brick structure was extravagant, the General Assembly ignored the gesture and sided with Lincoln voting to move the Capitol to Springfield on February 25, 1837.
On July 4, 1837, the first brick was laid for Illinois’ fifth capitol. In 1853, the capitol was completed for a total sum of $260,000 almost twenty times the cost of any previous structure. The building was designed in the Greek Revival style from stone quarried six miles from the site. For many years it was the largest and most extravagant capitol of the western frontier of the United States. The fifth capitol is considered by many to be Lincoln’s capitol as it was here that he argued cases before the Illinois Supreme Court, here that he served in the state legislature, here that he first confronted Stephen Douglas, and here where he delivered his famous “A House Divided” speech.
As Illinois prospered and experienced several booms in population, the fifth capitol became crowded, especially as a result of relocations after the Civil War. On February 24, 1867, the state voted to construct a new larger capitol. After breaking the ground for the sixth and current Capitol in 1868, the state recouped its costs in the fifth capitol by selling it to Sangamon County for $200,000. It served as the county court house until 1961 when the state again purchased the building and restored it so it could serve as a historic landmark, the Old State Capitol State Historic Site.
External links
Illinois Senate
Illinois Senate
The Illinois Senate is the upper chamber of the Illinois General Assembly, the legislative branch of the government of the state of Illinois in the United States. The body was created by the first state constitution adopted in 1818. The Illinois Senate is made up of 59 senators elected from individual legislative districts determined by population. There is a movement to modify senatorial districts on a geographic basis in order to more accurately reflect the cultural, racial and political makeup of outstate and downstate. In order to avoid complete turnovers in Senate membership, under the Illinois Constitution of 1970, some senators are elected to two-year terms while others are elected to four-year terms. Senate districts are divided into three groups. One or two of these groups are elected every two years for either a two or four year term. In contrast, the Illinois House of Representatives is made of 118 members with its entire membership elected to two-year terms.
The Illinois Senate convenes at the Illinois State Capitol in Springfield, Illinois. Its first official working day is the second Wednesday of January each year. Its primary duties are to pass bills into law, approve the state budget, confirm appointments to state departments and agencies, act on federal constitutional amendments and propose constitutional amendments for Illinois. It also has the power to override gubernatorial vetoes through a three-fifths majority vote. The Illinois Senate tries impeachments made by the House of Representatives, and can convict impeached officers by a two-thirds vote.
The Democratic Party of Illinois currently holds a veto-proof majority in the Illinois Senate.
Illinois State Senate – 95th General Assembly
Officers
President of the Senate: Emil Jones, Jr.
Majority Leader: Debbie Halvorson
Majority Caucus Chair: Terry Link
Minority Leader: Frank Watson
Minority Caucus Chair: Dale Righter
External links
Illinois General Assembly – Senate official government site
Illinois Senate Republicans official party site
Illinois Senate Democrats official party site
Project Vote Smart – Illinois State Senate voter information
Illinois House of Representatives
Illinois House of Representatives
The Illinois House of Representatives is the lower house of the Illinois General Assembly, the state legislature of the U.S. state of Illinois. The body was created by the first Illinois Constitution adopted in 1818. The state House of Representatives is made of 118 representatives elected from individual legislative districts for a two-year term with no limits. In contrast, the upper house Illinois Senate is made of 59 senators with staggered two or four-year terms.
Duties
The Illinois House of Representatives convenes at the Illinois State Capitol in the state capital of Springfield. Its first official working day is the second Wednesday of January each year. Its primary duties are to pass bills into law, approve the state budget, act on federal constitutional amendments and propose constitutional amendments for Illinois. It also has the power to override gubernatorial vetoes through a three-fifths majority vote. The Illinois House of Representatives also holds the power to impeach Executive and Judicial officials.
The current Speaker of the Illinois House of Representatives is Michael Madigan of Chicago, who represents the 22nd District. The Democratic Party of Illinois currently holds a majority in the House. Under the current Illinois Constitution, the office of Minority Leader is recognized for the purpose of making certain appointments. Tom Cross of Plainfield, a Republican representing the 84th District, currently holds the post.
Changes to the House
Before the Cutback Amendment to the state constituion in 1980, the state was divided into 59 “legislative districts”, each of which elected three representatives, yielding a House of 177 members. This unusual system was even more distinctive in that the individual voter was given three legislative votes to cast, and could cast either one vote each for three candidates, all three votes for one candidate (known as a “bullet vote”), or even 1 1/2 votes each for two candidates. After the passage of the Cutback Amendment, this system was abolished and representatives were elected from 118 single member constituencies.
Composition of the House
Officers
Speaker of the House: Michael Madigan
Majority Leader: Barbara Flynn Currie
Deputy Majority Leader: Gary Hannig
Majority Conference Chair: Joe Lyons
Minority Leader: Tom Cross
Minority Caucus Chair: Dan Brady
Clerk of the House: Mark Mahoney
Chief Doorkeeper: Lee A. Crawford
Parliamentarian: Robert A. Uhe
External links
Illinois General Assembly – House official government site
Illinois House Republicans official government site
Illinois House Democrats official government site
Project Vote Smart – Illinois State House of Representatives voter information
Illinois General Assembly
Illinois General Assembly
The Illinois General Assembly is the legislative branch of the government of the state of Illinois in the United States, created by the first constitution adopted in 1818. It works beside the executive branch led by the state governor and the judicial branch led by the supreme court. The Illinois General Assembly comprises the Illinois House of Representatives which serves as the lower chamber and the Illinois Senate which serves as the upper chamber. The Illinois House of Representatives is made of 118 representatives elected from individual legislative districts to two-year terms. The Illinois Senate is made of 59 senators. In order to avoid complete turnovers in Senate membership, not all districts elect senators simultaneously.
Furthermore, as the electoral boundaries for the General Assembly are changed following every decennial census, not all Senate terms are equal in size. Every Senate district elects its members to serve two four-year terms and one two-year term per decade. The placement of the two-year term in the decade varies from one district to another, with all districts’ terms defined as 2-4-4, 4-2-4, or 4-4-2.
The Illinois General Assembly convenes at the Illinois State Capitol in Springfield, Illinois. Its first official working day is the second Wednesday of January each year. Its primary duties are to pass bills into law, approve the state budget, confirm appointments to state departments and agencies, act on federal constitutional amendments, and propose constitutional amendments for Illinois. It also has the power to override gubernatorial vetoes through a three-fifths majority vote in each chamber.
External link
Cook County, Illinois
Cook County, Illinois
Cook County is a county located in the U.S. state of Illinois. As of 2006, the population was 5,288,655, making it the second largest county by population in the United States (after Los Angeles County, California), and accounting for 43.3% of the state’s population (if Cook County were an independent state, it would have the 21st largest population). The county seat is Chicago, the principal city of its metropolitan area; Chicago makes up about 54% of the population of the county, the rest being provided by various suburbs. Cook County is the 19th largest government in the United States. Cook County has by far more Democratic Party members than any other Illinois county, and is one of the most Democratic counties in the United States. It has only voted once for a Republican candidate in a Presidential election in the last forty years, in 1972, when county voters preferred Richard Nixon to George McGovern by 53.4% to 46%.
Cook County’s current County Board president is Todd Stroger.
History
Cook County was created on January 15, 1831 by an act of the Illinois State Legislature. It was the 54th county established in Illinois and was named after Daniel Pope Cook, one of the earliest and youngest statesmen in Illinois history, who served as the second U.S. Representative from Illinois and the first Attorney General of the State of Illinois. Shortly thereafter, in 1839, DuPage County was carved out of Cook County.
Government
The Circuit Court of Cook County, which is the largest unified court system in the world, disposing of over 6 million cases in 1990 alone, the Cook County Department of Corrections, which is the largest single-site jail in the nation, and the Cook County Juvenile Detention Center, the first juvenile center in the nation and one of the largest in the nation, are solely the responsibility of Cook County government. The Cook County Law Library is the second largest county law library in the nation.
The Bureau of Health Services administers the county’s public health services and is the second largest public health system in the nation. Three hospitals are part of this system: John H. Stroger, Jr. Hospital of Crook County, Provident Hospital, and Oak Forest Hospital of Cook County, along with over 30 outpatient clinics.
The Cook County Highway Department is responsible for the design and maintenance of over 578 miles of roadways in the county. These thoroughfares are mostly composed of major and minor arterials, with a few local roads. Although the Highway Department was instrumental in designing many of the expressways in the county, today they are under the jurisdiction of the state.
The Forest Preserve District, organized in 1915, is a separate, independent taxing body, but the Cook County Board of Commissioners also acts as the Forest Preserve District Board of Commissioners. The District is a belt of 68,000 acres (275 km²) of forest reservations surrounding the City of Chicago. The Brookfield Zoo (managed by the Chicago Zoological Society) and the Chicago Botanic Garden (managed by the Chicago Horticultural Society) are located in the forest preserves.
In the 1980s, Cook County was ground zero to an extensive FBI investigation named Operation Greylord. Ninety-two officials were indicted, including 17 judges, 48 lawyers, 8 policemen, 10 deputy sheriffs, 8 court officials, and 1 state legislator.
Cook County is the fifth largest employer in Chicago.[1]
Secession movements
To establish more localized government control and policies which reflect the often different values and needs of large suburban sections of the sprawling county, several secession movements have been made over the years which called for certain townships or municipalities to form their own independent counties.
In the late 1970s, a movement started which proposed a separation of six northwest suburban townships, Cook County’s panhandle (Barrington, Hanover, Palatine, Wheeling, Schaumburg, and Elk Grove) from Cook to form Lincoln County, in honor of the native former U.S. president who ironically does not have an Illinois county named after him.[2] It is likely that Arlington Heights would have been the county seat. This northwest suburban region of Cook is moderately conservative and has a population over 500,000. Local legislators, led by State Senator Dave Regnar, went so far as to propose it as official legislation in the Illinois House. The legislation died, however, before coming to a vote.
In 2004, Blue Island mayor Donald Peloquin tried to organize a coaliton of fifty-five south and southwest suburban municipalities to form a new county, also proposing the name Lincoln County. The county would include everything south of Burbank, stretching as far west as Orland Park, as far east as Calumet City, and as far south as Matteson, covering an expansive area with a population of over one million residents. Peloquin cited that the south suburbs are often shunned by the city and blamed the Chicago-centric policies of Cook County government for failing to jumpstart the long-depressed local economy of the south suburban region. Pending sufficient interest from local communities, Peloquin planned a petition drive to place a question regarding the secession on the general election ballot.[3]
Geography
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 4,235 km² (1,635 sq mi). 2,449 km² (946 sq mi) of it is land and 1,785 km² (689 sq mi) of it (42.16%) is water, most of it in Lake Michigan.
Adjacent counties
Lake County, Illinois – north
Berrien County, Michigan – east; boundary is in Lake Michigan
Porter County, Indiana – southeast; boundary is in Lake Michigan
Lake County, Indiana – southeast
Will County, Illinois – south
DuPage County, Illinois – west
Kane County, Illinois – west
McHenry County, Illinois – northwest
Demographics
As of the 2000 Census², there were 5,376,741 people, 1,974,181 households, and 1,269,398 families residing in the county. The population density was 2,195/km² (5,686/sq mi). There were 2,096,121 housing units at an average density of 856/km² (2,216/sq mi). The racial makeup of the county was 56.27% White, 26.14% Black or African American, 0.29% Native American, 4.84% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 9.88% from other races, and 2.53% from two or more races. 19.93% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 17.63% reported speaking Spanish at home; 3.13% speak Polish [1].
2005 Census estimates placed the non-Hispanic white popuation of Cook County at 45.4% of the total population of the county. Other racial groups were African-Americans at 26.4%, Latinos at 22.2% and Asians at 5.5%.[5] 2006 estimates showed the non-Hispanic white percentage of the population down to 44.7%.[6]
According to the 2000 Census there were 1,974,181 households out of which 30.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.0% were married couples living together, 15.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.7% were non-families. 29.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.68 and the average family size was 3.38.
In the county the population was spread out with 26.0% under the age of 18, 9.9% from 18 to 24, 31.7% from 25 to 44, 20.7% from 45 to 64, and 11.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 93.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.5 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $45,922, and the median income for a family was $53,784. Males had a median income of $40,690 versus $31,298 for females. The per capita income for the county was $23,227. About 10.6% of families and 13.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.9% of those under age 18 and 10.3% of those age 65 or over.
According to Census Bureau estimates, the county’s population was down to 5,303,683 in 2005 [2].
Townships
Suburban townships by population
Thornton Township – 180,802
Wheeling Township – 155,834
Proviso Township – 155,831
Worth Township – 152,239
Maine Township – 135,623
Schaumburg Township – 134,114
Palatine Township – 112,740
Bremen Township – 109,575
Lyons Township – 109,264
Niles Township – 102,638
Elk Grove Township – 94,969
Leyden Township – 94,685
Bloom Township – 93,901
Orland Township – 91,418
Cicero Township – 85,616
Hanover Township – 83,471
Northfield Township – 82,880
Evanston Township – 74,239
Rich Township – 67,623
New Trier Township – 56,716
Berwyn Township – 54,016
Palos Township – 53,419
Oak Park Township – 52,524
Stickney Township – 38,673
Norwood Park Township – 26,176
Calumet Township – 22,374
Lemont Township – 18,002
Riverside Township – 15,704
Barrington Township – 14,026
River Forest Township – 11,635
Chicago townships
The city of Chicago had a population of 2,896,016 as of the 2000 Census. Its eight former townships and annexed parts of others no longer have any formal structure or responsibility since their annexation, but their names and boundaries are still used by Cook County for tax assessment purposes.
Calumet Township
Cicero Township
Jefferson Township
Hyde Park Township
Lake Township
Lake View Township
Leyden Township
Maine Township
Norwood Park Township
Rogers Park Township
Stickney Township
Lake View Township
Communities
Cities
Berwyn
Blue Island
Burbank
Calumet City
Chicago – small part of O’Hare in DuPage
Chicago Heights
Country Club Hills
Countryside
Des Plaines
Elgin – mostly in Kane County
Evanston
Harvey
Hickory Hills
Markham
Northlake
Oak Forest
Palos Heights
Palos Hills
Park Ridge
Rolling Meadows
Towns
Villages
Alsip
Arlington Heights
Barrington – partly in Lake County
Barrington Hills – partly in Kane, Lake, McHenry Counties
Bartlett – partly in DuPage County, very small parcel in Kane County
Bedford Park
Bellwood
Bensenville – primarily in DuPage County
Berkeley
Bridgeview
Broadview
Brookfield
Buffalo Grove – partly in Lake County
Burnham
Burr Ridge – partly in DuPage County
Chicago Ridge
Crestwood
Deer Park – primarily in Lake County
Deerfield – primarily in Lake County
Dixmoor
Dolton
East Dundee – primarily in Kane County
East Hazel Crest
Elk Grove Village – partly in DuPage County
Elmwood Park
Evergreen Park
Flossmoor
Ford Heights
Forest Park
Forest View
Frankfort – primarily in Will County
Franklin Park
Glencoe
Glenview
Glenwood
Golf
Hanover Park – partly in DuPage County
Harwood Heights
Hazel Crest
Hillside
Hinsdale – partly in DuPage County
Hodgkins
Hoffman Estates – very small parcel in Kane County
Hometown
Homewood
Indian Head Park
Inverness
Justice
Kenilworth
La Grange
La Grange Park
Lansing
Lemont
Lincolnwood
Lynwood
Lyons
Matteson
Maywood
McCook
Melrose Park
Merrionette Park
Midlothian
Morton Grove
Mount Prospect
Niles
Norridge
North Riverside
Northbrook
Northfield
Oak Lawn
Oak Park
Olympia Fields
Orland Hills
Orland Park
Palatine
Palos Park
Park Forest – partly in Will County
Phoenix
Posen
Prospect Heights
Richton Park
River Forest
River Grove
Riverdale
Riverside
Robbins
Roselle – primarily in DuPage County
Rosemont
Sauk Village – small parcel in Will County
Schaumburg – partly in DuPage County
Schiller Park
Skokie
South Barrington
South Chicago Heights
South Holland
Steger – partly in Will County
Stickney
Stone Park
Streamwood
Summit
Thornton
Tinley Park – partly in Will County
University Park – primarily in Will County
Westchester
Western Springs
Wheeling
Willow Springs
Wilmette
Winnetka
Woodridge – primarily in DuPage, small section in Will County and a very small parcel in Cook County.
Worth
Pop culture references
In the 1980 film, The Blues Brothers, the title characters are racing to the offices of the Assessor of Cook County to pay the back taxes owed by the orphanage in which they grew up. In reality, however, back taxes are paid in the Office of the Cook County Treasurer, and church-owned property is tax exempt anyway. Murphy Dunne, who played the pianist in the movie, is the son of then Cook County Board President George Dunne.[7]
In the film The Fugitive, jail visitation is placed not in the jail but in the County Building, again for better visual effect. This film also places the lead character in the old Cook County Hospital for some key scenes.
In “Otis”, an episode of the television series Prison Break, LJ Burrows is sent to a court hearing at the Cook County Courthouse, while his father, Lincoln Burrows, and his uncle, Michael Scofield, attempt to take him out of custody by extracting him while he is in the elevator.
In the film Chicago, Roxie is sent to the Cook County Jail.
External links
Cook County Government Website
Cook County Assessor
Cook County Board of Review
Circuit Court of Cook County
Clerk of the Circuit Court of Cook County
Clerk of Cook County
Vote! from the Cook County Election Department
Cook County Recorder of Deeds
Cook County Sheriff
Cook County Jail
Cook County State’s Attorney
Cook County Treasurer
Forest Preserve District of Cook County
Global city
Global city
A global city or world city is a concept promoted by the geography department at Loughborough University which postulates that globalisation can be broken down in terms of strategic geographic locales that see global processes being created, facilitated and enacted. The most complex of these entities is the “global city,” whereby the linkages binding a city have a direct and tangible effect on global affairs through more than just socio-economic means, with influence in terms of culture, or politics.[1] The terminology of “global city”, as opposed to megacity, is thought to have been first coined by Saskia Sassen in reference to London, New York and Tokyo in her 1991 work The Global City.[2]
General characteristics
International, first-name familiarity; whereby a city is recognised without the need for a political subdivision. For example, although there are numerous cities and other political entities with the name Paris or variations on it, one would say “Paris“, not “Paris, France“.
Active influence on and participation in international events and world affairs; for example, New York City is home to the United Nations headquarters complex and consequently contains a vast majority of the permanent missions to the UN.[3]
A fairly large population (the centre of a metropolitan area with a population of at least one million, typically several million).
A major international airport that serves as an established hub for several international airlines.
An advanced transportation system that includes several freeways and/or a large mass transit network offering multiple modes of transportation (rapid transit, light rail, regional rail, ferry, or bus).
In the West, several international cultures and communities (such as a Chinatown, a Little Italy, or other immigrant communities). In other parts of the world, cities which attract large foreign businesses and related expatriate communities; for example, Singapore, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Tokyo, and Moscow.
International financial institutions, law firms, corporate headquarters, international conglomerates, and stock exchanges (for example the World Bank, or the London Stock Exchange) that have influence over the world economy.
An advanced communications infrastructure on which modern trans-national corporations rely, such as fiberoptics, Wi-Fi networks, cellular phone services, and other high-speed lines of communications.
World-renowned cultural institutions, such as museums and universities.
A lively cultural scene, including film festivals, premieres, a thriving music or theatre scene (for example, West End theatre and Broadway); an orchestra, an opera company, art galleries, and street performers.
Several powerful and influential media outlets with an international reach, such as the BBC, Reuters, The New York Times, or Agence France-Presse.
A strong sporting community, including major sports facilities, home teams in major league sports, and the ability and historical experience to host international sporting events such as the Olympic Games, Football World Cup, or Grand Slam tennis events.
To some, London, New York City, Paris, and Tokyo have been traditionally considered the ‘big four’ world cities – not coincidentally, they also serve as symbols of global capitalism.[citation needed] However, many people have their own personal lists, and any two lists are likely to differ based on cultural background, values, and experience.
GaWC Inventory of World Cities, 1999
An attempt to define and categorise world cities was made in 1999 by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network (GaWC), based primarily at Loughborough University in Loughborough, Leicestershire, England. The roster was outlined in the GaWC Research Bulletin 5[4] and ranked cities based on provision of “advanced producer services” such as accountancy, advertising, finance and law, by international corporations. The GaWC inventory identifies three levels of world cities and several sub-ranks.
Note that this roster generally denotes cities in which there are offices of certain multinational companies providing financial and consulting services rather than other cultural, political, and economic centres. There is a schematic map of GaWC cities at their website.[5]
Alpha world cities / full service world cities[6]
12 points: London, New York City, Paris, Tokyo
10 points: Chicago, Frankfurt, Hong Kong, Los Angeles, Milan, Singapore
Beta world cities / major world cities
9 points: San Francisco, Sydney, Toronto, Zürich
8 points: Brussels, Madrid, Mexico City, São Paulo
Gamma world cities / minor world cities
6 points: Amsterdam, Boston, Caracas, Dallas, Düsseldorf, Geneva, Houston, Jakarta, Johannesburg, Melbourne, Osaka, Prague, Santiago, Taipei, Washington, D.C.
5 points: Bangkok, Beijing, Montreal, Rome, Stockholm, Warsaw
4 points: Atlanta, Barcelona, Berlin, Budapest, Buenos Aires, Copenhagen, Hamburg, Istanbul, Kuala Lumpur, Manila, Miami, Minneapolis, Munich, Shanghai
Evidence of world city formation
Strong evidence
3 points: Athens, Auckland, Dublin, Helsinki, Luxembourg, Lyon, Mumbai, New Delhi, Philadelphia, Rio de Janeiro, Tel Aviv, Vienna
Some evidence
2 points: Abu Dhabi, Almaty, Birmingham (UK), Bogotá, Bratislava, Brisbane, Bucharest, Cairo, Cleveland, Cologne, Detroit, Dubai, Ho Chi Minh City, Kiev, Lima, Lisbon, Manchester (UK), Montevideo, Oslo, Riyadh, Rotterdam, Seattle, Stuttgart, The Hague, Vancouver
Minimal evidence
1 point: Adelaide, Antwerp, Aarhus, Baltimore, Bangalore, Bologna, Brasília, Calgary, Cape Town, Colombo, Columbus, Dresden, Edinburgh, Genoa, Glasgow, Gothenburg, Guangzhou, Hanoi, Kansas City, Leeds, Lille, Marseille, Richmond, St. Petersburg, Tashkent, Tehran, Tijuana, Turin, Utrecht, Wellington
GaWC Leading World Cities, 2004
An attempt to redefine and recategorise leading world cities was made by PJ Taylor at GaWC in 2004.
Global Cities [7]
Well rounded global cities
Very large contribution: London and New York City.
Smaller contribution and with cultural strengths: Los Angeles, Paris and San Francisco.
Incipient global cities: Amsterdam, Boston, Chicago, Madrid, Milan, Moscow, Toronto.
Global niche cities – specialised global contributions
Financial: Hong Kong, Singapore, and Tokyo.
Political and social: Brussels, Geneva and Washington, D.C.
World Cities
Subnet articulator cities
Cultural: Berlin, Copenhagen, Melbourne, Munich, Oslo, Rome, Stockholm.Political: Bangkok, Beijing, Vienna.
Social: Manila, Nairobi, Ottawa.
Worldwide leading cities
Primarily economic global contributions: Frankfurt, Miami,Mumbai, Munich, Osaka, Singapore, Sydney, Zurich
Primarily non-economic global contributions: Abidjan, Addis Ababa, Atlanta, Basel, Barcelona, Cairo, Denver, Harare, Lyon, Manila, Mexico City, New Delhi, Shanghai.
Other criteria
The GaWC list is based on specific criteria and, thus, may not include other cities of global significance or elsewhere on the spectrum. For example, cities with the following:
- Large populations, proper and agglomerated
- Diverse demographic constituencies[8]
- Based on various indicators:[9]
- Population, habitat,[10] mobility,[11] and urbanisation[12]
- Significant financial capacity/output:
- city/regional[13] GDP[14]
- Stock market indices[15]/market capitalisation
- Headquarters for multinational corporations
- Financial service provision;[16] e.g., banks, accountancy
- Employment
- Based on quality of life[17] or city development[18]
- Based on costs of living[19]
- Based on personal wealth; e.g., number of billionaires[20]
- Significant transport infrastructure:
- Airports with significant passenger traffic[21] or cargo movements
- Extensive and popular[22] mass transit systems
- Prominent rail usage[23]
- Road vehicle usage[24]
- Major seaports[25]
- Significant technological capabilities/infrastructure:
- Prominent skylines/skyscrapers[26]
- Significant institutions:
- Educational institutions; e.g., universities,[27] international student attendance[28]
- Research facilities
- Health facilities; e.g. hospitals, medical laboratories
- Sites of pilgrimage for world religions
- Hosting headquarters for international organizations
- Cities containing World Heritage Sites of historical and cultural significance[29]
- High endowments of cultural facilities:
- Notable museums and galleries
- Notable opera
- Notable orchestras
- Notable film centres and film festivals
- Notable theatre centres
- Sites of major international sports events; e.g., Olympic Games sites[30]
- Tourism throughput:
- Visitors
- Economy
- Events
- Site or subject in Arts and Media
- TV, Film, Video Games, Music
- Literature, Magazines, Articles, Documentary
- Historic Reference, Showcase
Global Cities Program
In 2007, a new trilateral “Global Cities” Program is created between Northwestern University (Chicago), Universidad Panamericana (Mexico City) and Sciences Po (Paris).
This program is designed to introduce students to the common issues faced by global cities and to engage them in research projects in a range of transnational issues of relevance to globalized cities and countries, such as migration, integration, environmental degradation, global culture and national identity.
Students are integrated into a program consisting of ten or so students from each institution and spend the whole year as part of this group, sharing culture, learning and conducting research in the three countries. The program begins at Northwestern in the Fall quarter, continues at Panamericana in the Winter quarter, and ends at Sciences Po in the Spring quarter.
This program offers a new perspective on international student exchanges and could be defined as the symbol of a new “global education”, focusing on contemporary issues and multiculturalism.
External links
Repository of Links Relating to Urban Places
World Cities article by Jennifer Curtis of Charles Sturt University
The World-System’s City System: A Research Agenda by Jeffrey Kentor and Michael Timberlake of the University of Utah and David Smith of University of California, Irvine
The State of the World’s Cities, 2001, UN Human Settlements Programme
“U.S. Cities in the ‘World City Network’”, by Peter J. Taylor and Robert E. Lang, February 2005 (Full Report in PDF)